
Ck)pyiightN^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



l1. 



MODERN 
SILAGE METHODS 






LATEST REVISED EDITION 
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 



An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction and the 

process of filling, to which is added complete and reliable 

information regarding Silage and its composition; 

feeding, and a treatise on rations, being a 



FEEDERS' AND DAIRYMEN'S GUIDE 



PUBLISHED 
AND COPYRIGHTED BY 



THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. 

SALEM. OHIO 
U. S. A. 

1911 






.6 



Copyrighted 1911. by 
The S11.VER Manufacturing Co. 



CHICAGO 
W. B. CONKEY COMPANY 



CI.A^SJ395 



IJ^ 



t^ 



i PREFACE. 

j\ This book has been written and published for the pur- 
j pbs© of furnishing our patrons and others with accurate 
•^ and full information on the subject of silo construction 
and the making of silage. It has been the aim of the au- 
thors to present the subject in a clear matter-of-fact man- 
ner, without flourish or rhetoric or flight of imagination, 
believing that the truth concerning the advantages of the 
siloing system is good enough. The testimony presented, 
which is purposely kept close to the experience of author- 
ities on feeding subjects in and outside of experiment sta- 
tions, will abundantly prove, we believe, that the equip- 
ment of an American dairy or stock farm is no longer 
complete without one or more silos on it. 

The new chapters on "The Summer Silo," "The Use of 
Silage in Beef Production," and "Concrete and Cement 
Block Silos" will be found especially timely, and in other 
respects the book has been brought up-to-date. 

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reli- 
able, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use 
of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered 
necessary, and in order that these may be more readily 
comprehended by Agriculturists, a comprehensive glossary 
or dictionary of such terms is included, following the last 
chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or 
can be studied previous to reading the book. 

In the compilation of certain parts of the book we 
have had the valuable assistance of Prof. Woll, of Wis- 
consin Experiment Station, author of "A Book on Silage" 
and "A Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen." Free use 
of the former book has been made in the preparation of 
this volume, as well as of experiment station publications 
treating the subject of silage. 

Hoping that this latest revision of "Modern Silage 
Methods" will prove helpful to our patrons, and incidentally 
suggest to them that the Ohio Silage Cutters and Blower 
Elevators are manufactured by us, we are. 

Very truly, 

THE SILVER MFG. CO. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PREFACE 3 

INTRODUCTORY 7-10 

CHAPTER L 

Advantages of the Silo — Preservation of a larger quantity 
of original food value enabled by the use of the Silo 
than any method known — Losses of nutritive value in 
dry curing — Small losses in the Siloing process — The 
Silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality — Economy of 
making — Economy of Storage — No danger of rain — No 
danger of late summer droughts — Food from thistles — 
Value in intensive farming. . . . , 11-22 

CHAPTER n. 

Summer Silos. 

Necessary in supplementing summer pastures and in tiding 
herd over period of drouth, heat and flies — Avoids la- 
bor of soiling crop system — Purdue Station Experi- 
ments — Comments by the agricultural press 23-27 

CHAPTER HI. 
Silage in Beef Production. 

A substitute for roots for fattening cattle — Prevents "burn- 
ing out" of steers — 500-ton silo for steers only — Advan- 
tages to the beef feeder — Experiments at the Ohio 
and Indiana Stations — At the Kansas and Iowa Sta- 
tions — Experience of one of largest beef cattle feeders 
in East — Prof. Soule's experiments in the South — Silage 

good for stockers 28-41 

4 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. h 

CHAPTER IV. 

Silage System and Soil Fertility. 

Helps maintain soil fertility — Every crop grown robs soil 
of fertilizing elements — Restoration has vital bearing 
on our crop yields — Value of barnyard manure — Every 
farm a manure factory with silage — Keeping fertility 
on the farm 42-47 

CHAPTER V. 
How to Build a Silo. 

Silos — General requirements for silo structures — On the 
size of silo required — On the form of silos — Relations 
of horizontal feeding — Area and number of cows kept 
— Location of the silo — Different types of silo struc- 
tures — Round wooden silos — The silo roof — Modifica- 
tions of the Wisconsin Silo — Plastered round wooden 
Silos — Brick-lined Silos — Stave Silos — Cheap Stave 
Silos — A modification of a Stave Silo — Connecting 
round silos with the barn — Other forms of round silos — 
Brick and stone Silos — Silos in the barn — Octagonal 
Silos — Cost and estimates for different kinds 48-120 

CHAPTER VI. 
Concrete or Cement Silos. 

"The silo of the future" where permanence is desired — 
Possibilities of reinforced concrete — Continuous hollow 
walls — Importance of strong foundation — —A Missouri 
concrete silo — "Forms" used for monolithic wall — Ce- 
ment Blocks; how made — To maintain cement lining — 
Reinforced cement blocks — Cement block silos de- 
scribed 121-132 

CHAPTER VII. 

Silage Crops — Indian Corn — Silos best adapted to corn 

culture and preparation of land — Varieties of corn for 

the silo — Time of cutting corn for the silo — Methods of 

planting corn — Other silage crops 133-148 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Filling the Silo — Indian Corn — Siloing corn "ears and all" 
— The filling process — The proper distribution of cut 
material in the silo — Size of cutter and power required 
— Length of chain elevator required — Directions for 
operating "Ohio" Blower Cutters — Danger from car- 
bonic-acid poisoning in silos — Covering the siloed fod- 
der — Use of water in filling silos — Clover for summer 
silage — Freezing of silage 149-166 

CHAPTER IX. 

How to feed silage — Silage for milch cows — Silage in the 
production of certified milk — ^Silage for beef cattle — 
for Horses — for Sheep — for Swine — Silage for poultry 
— Additional testimony as to the advantage of silage — 
Corn silage as compared with root crops — Corn silage 
as compared with hay — Corn silage compared with 
fodder corn 167-189 

CHAPTER X. 

A. feeder's guide — Composition of the animal body — Com- 
position of feeding stuffs — Digestibility of foods — Rela- 
tive value of feeding stuffs — Feeding standards — How 
to figure out rations — Grain mixtures for dairy cows — 
Average composition of Silage crops of different kinds, 
in per cent — Analysis of Feeding stuffs — Ready refer- 
ence tables 190-215 

CONCLUSION 216 

GLOSSARY 217-219 

INDEX 220-224 



Modern Silage Methods. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Twenty-five years ago few farmers knew what a silo 
was, and fewer still had ever seen a silo or fed silage to 
their stock. Today silos are as common as barn buildings 
In many farming districts in this country, and thousands of 
farmers would want to quit farming if they could not have 
silage to feed to their stock during the larger portion of 
the year. Twenty-five years ago it would have been neces- 
sary to begin a book describing the siloing system with 
definitions, what is meant by silos and silage; now all 
farmers who read agricultural papers or attend agricultural 
or dairy conventions are at least familiar with these 
words, even if they do not have a chance to become famil- 
iar with the appearance and properties of silage. They 
know that a SILO is an air-tight structure used for the 
preservation of green, coarse fodder in a succulent con- 
dition, and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo. 

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage 
making, but want to state here at the outset that Indian 
corn is pre-eminently the American crop suited to be pre- 
served in silos, and that this crop is siloed far more than 
all other kinds of crops put together. When the word 
silage is mentioned we, therefore, instinctively think of 
corn silage. We shall also follow this plan in the dis- 
cussions in this book; when only silage is spoken of ' we 
mean silage made from the corn plant; if made from 
other crops the name of the crop is always given, as 
clover silage, peavine silage, etc. 

7 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

History of the Silo. While the silo in one form or 
another dates back to antiquity, it was not until the latter 
part of the seventies that the building of silos intended 
for manufacture of silage began in this country. In 
1882 the United States Department of Agriculture could 
find only ninety-one farmers in this country who used silos. 
During the last twenty-five years, however, silos have 
gradually become general in all sections of the country 
where dairying and stock-raising are important industries; 
it is likely, if a census were taken of the number of silos 
in this country today, that we would find between a half 
and three-fourths of a million of them. The silo is today 
considered a necessity on thousands of dairy farms, and we 
find most of them in the states that rank first as dairy 
states, viz.: New York, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsyl- 
vania, etc. The farmers that have had most experience 
with silage are the most enthusiastic advocates of the silo- 
ing system, and the testimony of intelligent dairymen all 
over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. Said a 
New York farmer recently in one of our main agricultural 
papers: "I would as soon try to farm without a barn as 
without a silo," and another wrote, "I wouldn't take a 
thousand dollars for my silo if I could not replace it." The 
well-known agricultural writer, Joseph E. Wing, says: "No 
stock feeder who grows corn can afford to ignore the 
silo." "Buff Jersey," an Illinois dairy farmer and writer 
on agricultural topics, declares his faith in silage as fol- 
lows: "I am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, 
and a cheaper one, than our pastures." Another writer 
says: "The silo to my mind presents so many advantages 
over the system of soiling that it is bound to eventually 
do away with the use of soiling crops." According to 
the Cornell Experiment Station, the "silo, especially to the 
dairy farmer, has become an almost necessary adjunct to 
the equipment of the farm." 

Our first effort- in writing this book will be to pre- 
sent facts that will back up these statements, and show 
the reader the many advantages of the silo, over other 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

systems of growing and curing crops for the feeding of 
farm animals. We shall show that up-to-date dairy or 
stock farming is well nigh impossible without the aid of 
a silo. The silo enables us to feed live stock succulent 
feeds the year around, and preserves the fodder in a bet- 
ter condition and with less waste than any other system 
can. We shall see the why and wherefore of this in the 
following pages, and shall deal with the best way of mak- 
ing and feeding silage to farm animals. W^e wish to state 
at the outset that we do not propose to indulge in un- 
warranted statements or claims that will not stand the 
closest investigation. In the early days of the history 
of the silo movement it was thought necessary to make 
exaggerated claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked 
facts are sufficient to secure for the silo a permanent 
place among the necessary equipment of a modern dairy 
or stock farm. In discussing the silo we shall keep close 
to what has been found out at our experiment stations, 
and, we believe, shall be able to prove to any fair-minded 
reader that the silo is the greatest boon that has come 
to modern agriculture since the first reaper was manu- 
factured, and that with competition and resulting low 
prices, it will be likely to become more of a necessity to 
our farmers in the future than it has been in the past. 
We aim to convince our readers that the most sensible 
thing they can do is to plan to build a silo at once if they 
do not now have one. It is unnecessary to argue with 
those who are already the happy possessors of a silo, for 
it is a general experience where a farmer has only pro- 
vided for immediate wants in building his silo that he will 
build another as soon as he has had some experience 
with silage and finds out how his stock likes it, and 
how well they do on it. 

Modern practice has proved that no man need say 
"I cannot afford a silo," because any farmer who is at 
all handy with hammer and saw can provide a silo large 
enough for a medium-sized dairy with very little actual 
outlay of money. And this same built-at-home silo will 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

earn for its owner money to build another, and enlarge 
his herd. 

We shall give directions for building several kinds 
of such silos on the following pages. While they will 
not be apt to last as long, and therefore are not perhaps 
as economical in the long run as more substantially-built 
silos, still they do excellent service until some experience 
with making and feeding silage has been obtained, or 
until the farmer can afford to put up a more substantial 
structure. 

We mention this fact here to show farmers who may 
be considering the matter of building a silo, or who may 
be inclined to think that the silo is an expensive luxury, 
only for rich farmers, that the cost of a silo need not 
debar them from the advantages of having one on their 
farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent feed for their 
stock through the whole winter. Farmers who have not 
as yet informed themselves in regard to the value of the 
Bilo and silage on dairy or stock farms, are respectfully 
asked to read carefully the following statements of the 
advantages of the silo system over other methods of pre- 
serving green forage for winter or summer feeding. 

It has been said that "Whoever makes two blades of 
grass grow where but one grew before is a benefactor 
to mankind." A silo makes it possible to keep two cows 
where but one was kept before, and who would not gladly 
double his income? Does not this interest you? 



CHAPTER I. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

The silo enables us to preserve a larger quantity of tJie 
food materials of the original fodder for the feeding of farm 
animals than is possible by any other system of preservation 
now known. Pasture grass is the ideal feed for live stock, 
but it is not available more than a few months in the 
year. The same holds true with all soiling crops. or tame 
grasses as well. When made into hay the grasses and 
other green crops lose some of the food material contained 
therein, both on account of unavoidable losses of leaves 
and other tender parts, and on account of fermentations 
which take place while the plants are drying out or being 
cured. 

In cases of Indian corn the losses from the latter 
source are considerable, owing to the coarse stalks of 
the plant and the large number of air-cells in the pith 
of these. Under the best of conditions cured fodder corn 
will lose at least ten per cent, of its food value when 
cured in shocks; such a low loss can only be obtained 
when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in 
the field under ideal weather conditions. In ordinary farm 
practice the loss in nutritive value will approach twenty- 
five per cent., and will even exceed this figure unless 
special precautions are taken in handling the fodder, and 
it is not left exposed to all kinds of weather in shocks 
in the field through the whole winter. These figures 
may seem surprisingly large to many farmers who have 
left fodder out all winter long, and find the corn inside 
the shock bright and green, almost as it was when put 
up. But appearances are deceitful; if the shocks had 
been weighed as they were put up, and again in the late 

11 



12 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

winter, another story would be told, and it would be 
found that the shocks only weighed anywhere from a 
third to a half as much as when they were cured and 
ready to be put in the barn late in the fall; if chemical 
analysis of the corn in the shocks were made late in the 
fall, and when taken down, it would be found that the de- 
crease in weight was not caused by evaporation of water 
from the fodder, but by waste of food materials contained 
therein from fermentations, or actions of enzymes. (See 
Glossary.) 

The correctness of the figures given above has been 
abundantly proved by careful experiments conducted at a 
number of different experiment stations, notably the Wis- 
consin, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Colorado 
experiment stations. A summary of the main work in 
this line is given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage. In the 
Wisconsin experiments there was an average loss of 23.8 
per cent, in the dry matter (see Glossary), and 24.3 per 
cent, of protein, during four different years, when over 
B6 tons of green fodder had been put up in shocks and 
carefully weighed and sampled at the beginning and end 
of the experiment. These shocks had been left out for 
different lengths of time, under varying conditions of 
weather, and made from different kinds of corn, so as to 
present a variety of conditions. The Colorado experi- 
ments are perhaps the most convincing as to the losses 
which unavoidably take place in the curing of Indian corn 
in shocks. The following account is taken from Prof. 
Cook's report of the experiments. As the conditions de- 
scribed in the investigation will apply to most places on 
our continent where Indian corn is cured for fodder, it 
will be well for farmers to carefully look into the results 
of the experiment. 

"It is believed by most farmers that, in the dry cli- 
mate of Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked 
in good shape, cures without loss of feeding value, and 
that the loss of weight that occurs is merely due to the 
drying out of the water. A' test of this question was made 



LOSSES IN DRY CURING. 



13 



in the fall of 1893, and the results obtained seemed to 
indicate that fully a third of the feeding value was lost 
in the curing. This result was so surprising that the fig- 
ures were not published, fearing that some error had crept 
in, though we could not see where there was the possibility 
of a mistake. 

"In the fall of 1894 the test was repeated on a larger 
scale. A lot of corn was carefully weighed and sampledl, 
[t was then divided into three portions; one was spread 
on the ground in a thin layer, the second part was set up 
in large shocks, containing about five hundred pounds of 
green fodder in each, while the rest was shocked in small 
bundles. After remaining thus for some months, until 
thoroughly cured, the portions were weighed,) sampled 
and analyzed separately. The table gives the losses that 
occurred in the curing. 





Larg-e Shocks. 


Small Shocks. 


On the Ground. 




Total 
Weight 


Dry 

Matter 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 

Matter 


Total 
Weight 


Dry 
Matter 


When Shocked 

After Curing 

Loss in Weight 

Per Cent of Loss 


Lbs. 

952' 

258 

694 

73 


Lbs. 

217 
150 

67 
31 


Lbs. 

294 
64 

230 

78 


Lbs. 

77 
44 
33 
43 


Lbs. 
186 

33 
153 

82 


Lbs. 

42 
19 

23 
55 



"So far as could be told by the eye, there had been 
no loss. The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the stalks 
on the Inside of the bundles retained their green color, 
with no sign of molding or heating. And yet the large 
shocks had lost 31 per cent, of their dry matter, or feed- 
ing value; the small shocks 43 per cent, and the corn 
spread on the ground 55 per cent. 

"On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses were 
explained. The juice was acid, and there was a very 
strong acid odor, showing that an active fermentation 



14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

was taking place in this seemingly dry fodder. We had 
noticed this strong odor the fall before and all through 
the winter. When the fodder corn for the steers is put 
through the feed cutter that same strong smell is present. 

"It can be said, then, that the dryness of the climate 
in Colorado does not prevent fodder corn from losing 
a large part of its feeding value through fermentation. 
Indeed, the loss from this source is fully as great as In 
<;he damp climate in New England. 

"As compared with the losses by fermentation in the 
silo, the cured fodder shows considerably the higher loss." 

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven 
shocks cured under cover in the barn lost on an average 
over 8 per cent, of dry matter and toward 14 per cent, of 
protein. In an experiment at the Maine station over 14 
per cent, of dry matter was lost in the process of slow 
drying of a large sample of fodder corn under the most 
favorable circumstances. "It is interesting to note that 
this loss falls almost entirely on the nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, or carbohydrates (see Glossary), more than two- 
thirds of it being actually accounted for by the diminished 
percentage of sugars." 

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under 
cover with all possible care, it is evident that the aver- 
age losses of dry matter in field-curing fodder corn, given 
in the preceding, by no means can be considered exagger- 
ated. Exposure to rain and storm, abrasion of dry leaves 
and thin stalks, and other factors tend to diminish the 
nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses from 
fermentations, so that very often only one-half of the 
food materials originally present in the fodder is left by 
the time it is fed out. The remaining portion of the 
fodder has, furthermore, a lower digestibility and a lower 
feeding value than the fodder corn when put up, for 
the reason that the fermentations occurring during the 
curing process destroy the most valuable and easily 
digestible part, i e., the sugar and starch of the nitrogen- 



THE SILOING PROCESS. 15 

free extract, which are soluble, or readily rendered sol- 
uble, in the process of digestion. 

2. Losses in the Siloing Process. As compared with 
the large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian 
corn there are but comparatively small losses in the silo, 
caused by fermentation processes or decomposition of the 
living plant cells as they are dying off. The losses in this 
case have been repeatedly determined by experiment 
stations, and, among others, by those mentioned in the 
preceding. The average losses of dry matter in the fod- 
der corn during the siloing period of four seasons 
(1887-'91) as determined by Prof. Wbll at the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station was about 16 per cent. The silos 
used in these trials, as in case of nearly all the early 
experiments on this point, were small and shallow, how- 
ever, only 14 feet deep, were rectangular in form, and 
not always perfectly air-tight, a most important point 
in silo construction, as we shall see, and a portion of the 
silage therefore came out spoilt, thus increasing the 
losses of food materials in the siloing process. The 
losses reported were, therefore, too great, and there Is 
now an abundance of evidence at hand showing that the 
figures given are higher than those found in actual prac- 
tice, and the necessary loss in the silo comes consider- 
ably below that found in the early experiments on this 
point. There are plenty of cases on record showing 
that ten per cent, represents thej maximum loss of dry 
matter in modern deep, well-built silos. The losses found 
in siloing corn at a number of experiment stations dur- 
ing the last ten years have come at or below this figure. 
It is possible to reduce the loss still farther by avoid- 
ing any spoilt silage on the surface, by beginning to feed 
immediately after the filling of the silo, and by feeding 
the silage out rather rapidly. Experiments conducted on 
a small scale by Prof. King in 1894 gave losses of only 
2 and 3 per cent, of dry matter, on the strength of which 
results, amongst others, he believes that the necessary 
loss of dry matter in the Silo need not exceed 5 per cent. 



16 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

Summarizing our considerations concerning the rela- 
tive losses of food materials in the field-curing and silo- 
ing of Indian corn, we may, therefore, say that far from 
being less economical than the former, the silo is more 
so, under favorable conditions for botli systems, and that 
therefore a larger quantity of food materials is obtained 
by filling the corn crop into a silo than by any other 
method of preserving it known at the present time. 

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to 
fodder corn applies equally well to other crops put into 
the silo. A few words will suffice in regard to two of 
these, clover and alfalfa. Only a few accurate siloing 
experiments have been conducted with clover, but enough 
has been done to show that the necessary losses in silo- 
ing this crop do not much, if any, exceed those of Indian 
corn. Lawes and Gilbert, of the Rothmasted Experiment 
Station, England, placed 264,318 pounds of first and sec- 
ond crop clover into one of these stone silos, and took 
out 194,470 pounds of good clover silage. Loss in weight, 
24.9 per cent. This loss fell, however, largely on the 
water in the clover. The loss of dry matter amounted 
to only 5.1 per cent., very nearly the same amount of loss 
as that which the same experimenter found had taken 
place in a large rick of about forty tons of hay, after 
standing for two years. The loss of protein in the silo 
amounted to 8.2 per cent. In another silo 184,959 pounds 
of second-crop grass and second-crop clover were put in, 
and 170,941 pounds were taken out. Loss in gross weight, 
7.6 per cent; loss of dry matter, 9.7 per cent.; of crude 
protein, 7.8 per cent. 

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at the 
Wisconsin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G. Short 
obtained the following results: Clover put into the silo, 
12,279 pounds; silage taken out, 9,283 pounds; loss, 24,4 
per cent.; loss of dry matter, 15.4 per cent.; of protein, 
12.7 per cent. 

There is nothing in any of these figures to argu« 
against the siloing of green clover as an economical praf 



THE SILOING PROCESS. 17 

tice. On the other hand, we conclude that this method 
of preserving the clover crop is highly valuable, and, in 
most cases, to be preferred to making hay of the crop. 

No extended investigation has been made as to the 
losses sustained in the siloing of alfalfa, but there can be 
little doubt but that they are considerably smaller than 
In making alfalfa hay, if proper precautions guarding 
against unnecessary losses in the silo are taken. Accord- 
ing to the testimony of Professor Headden of the Colo- 
rado Experiment Station, the minimum loss from the fall- 
ing off of leaves and stems in successful alfalfa hay mak- 
ing amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases 
where the conditions have been unfavorable, to as much 
as 60 and even 66 per cent, of the hay crop. Aside from 
the losses sustained through abrasion, rain storms, when 
these occur, may reduce the value of the hay one-half. 
The losses from either of these sources are avoided in 
preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place a small 
loss through fermentation occurs, under ordinary favor- 
able conditions, amounting to about 10 per cent, or less. 

There is this further advantage to be considered 
when the question of relative losses in the silo and in 
hay-making or field-curing green forage, that hay or corn 
fodder, whether in shocks or in the field or stored under 
shelter, gets poorer and poorer the longer it is kept, as 
the processes of decomposition are going on all the 
time; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss in food sub- 
stances is not appreciably larger six months after the silo 
was filled than it is one month after, because the air 
is shut out, so that the farmer who puts up a lot of fodder 
corn for silage in the fall can have as much and as val- 
uable feed for his stock in the spring, or in fact, the fol- 
lowing summer or fall, as he would have if he proceeded 
to feed out all the silage at once. 

"Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in 

feeding value to one ton of hay. On this basis a much 

larger amount of digestible food can be secured from an 

acre of silage corn than from an acre of hay. The food 

2 



18 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can easily be pro- 
duced on an acre of land planted to corn." — (Plumb.) 

3. Succulence. Succulent food is Nature's food. We 
all know the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and 
the green dried fruit. In the drying of fruit as well as of 
green fodder water is the main component taken away; 
with it, however, go certain flavoring matters that do not 
weigh much in the chemist's balance, but are of the 
greatest importance in rendering the food material pal- 
atable. It is these same flavoring substances which are 
washed out of the hay with heavy rains, and renders 
such hay of inferior value, often no better than so much 
Btraw, not because it does not contain nearly as much 
food substances, like protein, fat, starch, sugar, etc. (see 
Glossary), but because of the substances that render 
hay palatable having been largely removed by the rain. 

The influence of well-preserved silage on the diges- 
tion and general health of animals is very beneficial, ac- 
cording to the unanimous testimony of good authorities, 
[t is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly 
to green fodders. The good accounts reported of the pre- 
vention of milk fever by the feeding of silg-ge are ex- 
plained by the laxative influence of the feed. 

4. Uniformity. The silo furnishes a feed of uniform 
quality, and always near at hand, available at any time 
during the whole year or winter. No need of fighting thte 
elements, or wading through snow or mud to haul it from 
the field; once in the silo the hard work is over, and the 
farmer can rest easy as to the supply of succulent rough- 
age for his stock during the winter. An ample supply 
of succulent feed is of advantage to all classes of ani- 
mals, but perhaps particularly so in case of dairy cows 
and sheep, since these animals are especially sensitive 
to sudden changes in the feed. Also, stock raisers value 
Bilage highly on this account, for silage is of special value 
for feeding preparatory to turning cattle on to the watery 
pasture grass in the spring. The loss in the weight of 
cattle on being let out on pasture in spring, is often so 



ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 19 

great that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back 
where they were when turned out. When let out in the 
spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether 
silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they are fed some 
grain during the first week or two after they are turned 
out. For more detailed information regarding the feeding 
of silage for beef production, see chapter 3, page 28. 

5. Economy of Storage. Less room is required for 
the storage in a silo of the product from an acre of land 
than in cured condition in a barn. A ton of hay stored 
in the mow will fill a space of at least 400 cubic feet; a 
ton of silage, a space of about 50 cubic feet. Considering 
the dry matter contained in both feeds we have found that 
8,000 pounds of silage contains about as much dry matter 
as 2,323 pounds of hay,, or 160 against 465 cubic feet, that 
is, it takes nearly three times as much room to store 
the same quantity of food materials in hay as in silage. 
In case of field-cured fodder corn, the comparison comes 
out still more in favor of the silo, on account of the 
greater difficulty in preserving the thick cornstalks from 
heating when placed under shelter. According to Pro- 
fessor Alvord, an acre of corn, field-cured, stored in the 
most compact manner possible, will occupy a space ten 
times as great as in the form of silage. While hay will 
contain about 86 per cent, of dry matter, cured fodder 
corn often does not contain more than 60 and sometimes 
only 50 per cent, of dry matter; the quantities of food 
material in fodder corn that can be stored in a given 
Bpace are, therefore, greatly smaller than in case of hay, 
and consequently, still smaller than in case of silage. 

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed, 
there is less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of 
insurance. 

6. No Danger of Rain. Hainy weather is a disad- 
vantage in filling silos as in most other farm operations, 
but when the silo is once filled, the fodder is safe, and the 
farmer is independent of the weather throughout the 
season. 



20 



ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 



If the corn has suffered from drought and heat during 
the fall months, it is quite essential to wet the corn either 
as it goes into the silo, or when this has all been filled, in 
order to secure a good quality of silage; and unless the 
corn is very green when it goes into the silo, th'e addi- 
tion of water, or water on the corn from rain or dew, will 
do no harm. If the corn is too dry when put into the silo, 
the result will be dry mold, which is prevented by the 
addition of the water, which replaces that which has dried 
out previous to filling if this has been delayed. 

A common practice among successful siloists is to 
fill the silo when the lower leaves of the standing corn 
have dried up about half way to the ears. Generally, the 
corn will be in about the proper condition at that time, 
and there will still be moisture enough left in the plants 
60 that the silage will come out in first-class condition. 

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time 
of filling the silo, so that the heating processes, which take 
place soon after, and which expel a considerable portion 
of the moisture, can take place, and still leave the corn 
moist after cooling, when the silage will remain in prac- 
tically a uniform condition for several years if left 
undisturbed. But if, on account of over-ripeness, frosts, or 
excessive drought, the corn is drier than stated, it should 
be made quite wet as stated above, and there is little 
danger of getting it too wet. The writer has filled silo 
with husked corn fodder about Christmas, and as the 
fodder was thoroughly dried, a ^'4-inch pipe was connected 
with an overhead tank in the barn and arranged to dis- 
charge into the carrier of the cutter as the cutting took 
place, a No. 18 Ohio cutter being used for that purpose. 
Although the full stream was discharged, and with con- 
siderable force, on account of the elevation of the tank, 
and the cut fodder in the silo still further wet on top with 
a long hose attached to a wind force pump, it was found, 
on opening the silo a month later, that none too much 
water had been used; the fodder silage came out in good 
condition, was eaten greedily by the milch cows, and 



ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 21 

was much more valuable than if it had been fed dry from 
the field. 

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the 
case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of 
rainy weather late in the season the silo will further- 
more preserve the crop, so that the farmer may derive 
full benefit from it in feeding it to his stock. Frosted 
corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will come out 
a very fair quality of silage if well watered as referred to 
above. 

7. No danger of Late Summer Droughts. By using 
the silo with clover or other green summer crops, early 
in the season, a valuable succulent feed will be at hand 
at a time when pasture in most regions is apt to give 
out; then again, the silo may be filled with corn when 
this is in the roasting-ear stage, and the land thus en- 
tirely cleared earlier than when the corn is left to ma- 
ture and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it 
possible to finish fall plowing sooner and to seed the 
land down to grass or winter grain, 

8. Food from Thistles. Crops unfit for haymaking 
may be preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable 
food. This is not of the importance in this land of plenty 
of ours that it is, or occasionally has been elsewhere. 
Under silage crops are included a number of crops which 
could not be used as cattle food in any other form than 
this, as ferns, thistles, all kinds of weeds, etc. In case 
of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry 
his cattle through the winter. 

9. Value in Intensive Farming. More cattle can be 
kept on a certain area of land when silage is fed, than 
Is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect furnishes 
a similar advantage over field-curing fodders, as does the 
soiling system over that of pasturing cattle; in both the 
siloing and soiling system there is no waste of feed, all 
food grown on the land being utilized for the feeding of 
farm animals, except a small unavoidable loss in case of 



22 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. 

the siloing system incurred by the fermentation processes 
taking place in the silo. 

Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, 
as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be prac- 
ticed to advantage where this is cheap. As the land in- 
creases in value, more stock must be kept on the same 
area in order to correspondingly increase the profits from 
the land. The silo here comes in as a material aid, and 
by its adoption, either alone or in connection with the 
soiling system, it will be possible to keep at least twice 
the number of animals on the land that can be done 
under the more primitive system of pasturing and feeding 
dry feeds during the winter. The experience of Goffart, "the 
Father of Modern Silage," on this point is characteristic. 
On his farm of less than eighty-six acres at Burtin, France, 
he kept a herd of sixty cattle, besides fattening a num- 
ber of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure 
us that he had ample feed on hand to keep one hundred 
head of cattle the year around. 

We might go on and enumerate many other points 
in which the siloing process has decidedly the advantage 
over the method of field-curing fodder or haymaking; but 
it is hardly necessary. The points given in the ^preceding 
will convince any person open to conviction, of" the supe- 
riority of the silo on stock or dairy farms. As \ve proceed 
with our discussion we shall have occasion to refer to sev- 
eral points in favor of silage as compared with dry feed, 
which have not already been touched upon. We shall now, 
first of all, however, discuss the Summer Silo; also the 
wonderful progress of the use of silage in beef production, 
and of its help in maintaining soil fertility. Afterwards, 
we will proceed to explain the method of building Silos 
and then discuss the subject of making and feeding silage. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SUMMER SILO. 

The summer silo is fast becoming popular and even 
necessary because of its splendid aid in supplementing 
summer pastures and tiding the herd over the period of 
drouth, heat and flies. Experiment Stations that have 
studied the subject, strongly advocate its use and some 
of the leading agricultural papers have been speaking in 
no uncertain voice as to its advantages. 

"The summer silo is as certain to assert its value as 
American agriculture is certain to go forward rather than 
backward," says Breeder's Gazette of Chicago. "Pasture 
as at present used — or abused — is a broken reed. An over- 
grazed acre is the costliest acre that the farmer supports. 
Even in normal seasons grass rests in the summer time, 
and unless a fall and winter pasture is laid by, little good 
is derived }rom grass lands after the flush of spring. The 
Bilo supplements pastures, and carries the burden of the 
winter's feeding." 

Following the same line of thought Purdue Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 13 says: 

"Too much dependence is usually placed upon pasture 
for summer feeding. Pasturing high priced land is un- 
profitable in these times. Few stop to consider the de- 
structive effects of trampling, that, while a cow is taking 
one bite of grass, she is perhaps soiling or trampling the 
life out of four others. If sufficient silage is put up each 
year part can well be used for summer feeding, which 
will be found less laborious than the daily hauling of 
green crops for the herd. The herd must not be allowed 
to shrink in flow unduly, as it is practically impossible 
to bring them back during the same lactation. The 
young stock, destined for future producers, must not be 
neglected on short pasture, for the labor and expense of 

23 



24 THE SUMMER SILO. 

supplying their needs as above indicated for the herd, is 
insignificant compared with the importance of their unim- 
paired growth." 

There are many intelligent farmers who are providing 
a succession of fresh soiling crops and using them to 
great advantage in helping out short pastures. "But," 
says Professor Frazer of the Illinois Station, "there is 
Qecessarily much labor attached to preparing the ground, 
planting, raising, and harvesting the common crops used 
for this purpose. There is usually much loss in being 
obliged to feed these crops before they are mature and 
after they are overripe. And for the farmer who can 
make the larger investment, the most practical way of 
all to provide green feed for summer drouth is to fill a 
small silo with corn silage. It not only saves the labor 
and inconvenience in the putting in and cultivation of 
small patches of different kinds of crops, but also in har- 
vesting from day to day in a busy season of the year. 

"These soiling crops can be dispensed with and all 
the feed raised from one planting in one field in the shape 
of corn. The whole field of corn for the silo may be cut 
at just the right stage of maturity when the most nutri- 
ment can be secured in the best possible condition of 
feeding. It also avoids the possibility of the soiling crops 
failing to ripen at the exact period when the drouth hap- 
pens to strike the pasture. For the silo may be opened 
whenever the pasture fails, regardless of the date, and the 
silage will remain in the best condition as long as needed. 
When the pasture supplies enough feed again, what is 
left in the silo may be covered over and thus preserved 
without waste, and added to when refilling the silo for 
winter use." 

Further evidence comes from the Purdue Station. Prof. 
Skinner writes: 

"Many successful farmers with limited areas of pasture 
make a practice of filling a small silo for summer use. It 
has been well established that silage properly stored in 
a good silo when the corn or other crop is in the most de- 



SUMMER FEEDING. 25 

sirable condition, will keep in good condition for several 
years. Many foresighted men taking advantage of this fact 
plan to have silage on hand the year around. They are 
thus prepared for any unusual conditions such as drouth, 
scant pasture, excessively long winters, and it is altogether 
practical and profitable. It is desirable to have a silo of 
relatively small diameter for summer feeding as it is 
necessary to feed considerable amount from off the top 
of the silage each day in order to keep it from moulding 
during the hot, damp v/eather. 

There are three silos on the university farm and it is 
our aim to avoid having all these empty at the same time. 
A limited farm, greatly overstocked, makes it necessary 
to supplement the pastures every year, and while soiling 
crops are grown in abundance they cannot be relied upon 
because of the gravelly nature of the sub-soil underlying 
the farm, which means longer or shorter periods of drouth 
annually. 

It would be absolutely impossible to maintain the num- 
ber of animals on the college farm that we are successfully 
carrying without the silage to supplement our pastures 
and soiling crops. Many Indiana men have come to look 
on the silo as quite as important in supplementing the 
pastures as it is in furnishing succulence during the winter 
season." 

The dry pastures and burned-up hillsides following the 
drouth of 1910 made a very strong impression as to the 
importance of having good summer feeding. It was an 
eloquent though severe plea for the summer silo and led 
to some splendid testimony in its favor. The drouth "cut 
down the milk flow in most of the herds nearly 50 per 
cent. Not one farmer in a hundred had provided for this 
emergency by a good supply of succulent food that would 
make milk. It is the same old story over again. It seems 
to take a tremendous lot of pounding on the part of Provi- 
dence, to get it into farmers' heads that a summer silo is 
a grand thing. The Hoard's Dairyman herd of cows had 
50 tons or more of nice corn ensilage to turn to when 
feed grew short and they have rolled out the milk nicely 
right along. Besides, they will keep at it. There is noth- 
ing like a supply of ensilage for summer use. It is close 
by and handy to the stable for use, when you want it. 



26 THE SUMMER SILO. 

And furthermore it will produce more milk than any other 
kind of soiling feed." 

This is the experience of Wisconsin experimenters, 
who find that silage holds milk-flow during drouth even 
better than soiling. It is rational that it should. 

The substance of a strong editorial in Wallace's Farmer, 
while referring particularly to the lesson of the 1910 
drouth, applies with equal force wherever pasture is used 
or cattle are fed. It is worth quoting here: ^ 

"The question we are constantly asked is: 'Will silage 
keep through the summer?' We are glad to be able to give 
a direct answer to this, not theoretically, but from per- 
sonal experience. We built a silo on one of the Wallace 
farms and filled it in 1908, and made the mistake of build- 
ing it too large. During the winter of 1908-9 the silage 
was not all used. Last fall we put in new silage on top of 
the old, and during the winter used. out of the new silage, 
leaving the unused remainder in the bottom. We are now 
feeding that silage, and the man in charge, an experienced 
dairyman, tells us that after the waste on top was re- 
moved, this two-year-old silage is as good as any he ever 
used; that the cattle eat it as readily as anything and 
eat more of it than they did during the winter. 

"This is in entire harmony with every farmer we ever 
heard of who uses summer silage. If silage will keep two 
years without any waste except on the exposed portion 
of the surface, then it will certainly keep one. 

"Some people say: 'We may not have another summer 
like this.' To this we reply that a period of short pastures 
during July and August is the rule in all the corn belt 
states, and lush grass at this season of the year is a rare 
exception. Remember that seasons come in cycles of un- 
known duration, and the time of their coming is uncertain; 
that it always has been so, and it is safe to assume that 
they always will until the Creator sees fit to change his 
method of watering the earth. Therefore, well-made silage 
in a good silo is just as staple as old wheat in the mill. 
There will be a waste of several inches on the surface, 
just as there is waste of several inches on the surface 
of the hay stack or shock of corn fodder; but a man can 
afford that waste, if he has the assurance that his cows 
will not fail in their milk or his cattle lose flesh, even if 
there should be little or no rain for thirty or sixty days. 
When you put up a silo for summer use, you are going 



SUMMER FEEDING. 27 

into a perfectly safe proposition, provided, of course, you 
build it right, and fill it properly." 

It is well to remember that less silage will naturally 
be fed in summer than in winter and in order to keep the 
surface in fairly good condition, at least three inches of 
silage should be taken off daily, where two inches suffice 
in the winter. It will be found advisable therefore in building 
the summer silo to keep the diameter proportionately 
smaller. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE USE OF SLLAGE IN BEEF 
PRODUCTIO.\. 

In his "Feeds and Feeding," published some years ago. 
Prof. Henry says in one paragraph, with regard to feeding 
silage to beef cattle: 

"Because of its succulence and palatability, this for- 
age is recommended as a substitute for roots for fattening 
cattle." In another paragraph: 

"If the stockman desires a cheap, succulent feed for 
his cattle in the winter time, he will find it in corn silage. 
The same quantity of nutriment that a root crop yields 
can be produced more economically in corn forage stored 
in the shape of silage, and this article can be fed with 
satisfaction to steers during the early stages of fattening. 
At first as much as forty or fifty pounds of silage may be 
given daily to each steer; when the full grain feeding 
period arrives, let the allowance be cut down to 25 or 30 
pounds per day. A limited use of this feed will keep the 
system cool and the appetite vigorous.^' 

The same writer is also authority for the statement 
that the best and most economical way to prevent the 
"burning out" of steers being well fattened on cofn, was 
to feed ensilage with the corn. 

Accumulating experience in many parts of the country 
covering a number of years indicates that Prof. Henry 
was right, and it strongly approves the use of silage in 
maintaining beef herds and in fattening steers. In the 
minds of many farmers, the dairyman has long held a 
monopoly on the profitable use of this succulent food, and 
it is true that in cheapening production of dairy products 
and in maintaining the milk flow and the perfect condi- 
tion of his cows in those months when fresh grass is not 
to be had for them, the silage system has reached its 
highest development. Each year, however, has seen a 

28 



SILAGE FOR STEER FEEDING. 29 

steady growth of sentiment in progressive stock-raising 
communities favorable to a more profitable use of corn 
fodder, and today many of the most prominent beef cattle 
breeders and feeders are among the foremost users of 
silage for feeding purposes. 

It is no secret that a prejudice has existed against 
silage in feeding circles. But the astonishing results 
achieved by every doubter who tried the experiment is 
"fact-evidence" of the most weighty nature and is serving 
as a strong weapon against such prejudice. 

One of the biggest and most substantial silos in Iowa 
was erected in the fall of 1910 in Cherokee County, near 
Quimby, in the northwestern part of the state. It is fifty 
feet high, twenty-six feet across and will hold approxi- 
mately 500 tons of silage. It is built of cement blocks and 
was erected for steer feeding purposes exclusively. 

Many Experiment Stations have for some time been 
carrying on experiments to show the comparative value 
of silage and other feeds, and these have very generally 
resulted with credit to corn silage, as an economical and 
suitable feed for steers. 

Prof. Herbert W. Mumford of the Illinois College of 
Agriculture, Urbana, in a recent article calls attention 
to the increasing interest in corn silage in connection with 
the feeding of beef cattle. The silo is today an essential 
feature in the successful dairyman's equipment but its 
adoption by cattle feeders has been noticeably slower. 
Mr. Mumford says that "This is undoubtedly partly due 
to the fact that dairying more naturally lends itself to 
intensive methods while beef production has been more 
universally profitable when pursued in a large way by 
more or less extensive systems of farming. It is possible, 
too, that the cattle feeder has expected too much of silage 
and has confined the cattle too largely upon it. It is 
growing in favor among the beef producers and we confi- 
dently believe that it has a large place in the cattle feed- 
ing of the future in the corn belt. 



30 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

It furnishes the best means of storing the entire corn crop, 
a part of which is now only partially utilized in the corn 
belt, with minimum waste. Experiment stations have been 
gradually but surely teaching us its usefulness in the 
feeding of beef cattle. Practical feeders here and there 
have been carefully trying it out, and with but very few 
exceptions where the beef producer has erected a silo, 
filled it with corn and fed it out to his beef cattle he has 
become a silage-for-beef-cattle convert. 

Silage is undoubtedly of especial value in the feeding 
of beef breeding cows and in the wintering of calves 
and young cattle intended for beef production. The 
Illinois experiment station has determined the eco- 
nomic importance of the silo in beef production in the 
state when used in connection with the feeding of beef 
cows and young cattle. This importance might be briefly 
stated as follows: 

"Corn silage when supplemented with oats and hay, 
used for wintering calves intended for beef production, 
will produce thirty-five pounds more gain per steer during 
the season at the same cost of ration than when shock 
corn similarly supplemented is fed. This extra gain is 
worth 5 cents per pound, or $1.75 per calf. There are 
over 700,000 calves wintered in Illinois each year. 

"It should be borne in mind that the cattle feeders 
who are apparently succeeding best with silage are those 
who buy young, light-weight feeders weighing from 600 
to 1,000 pounds, feeding them silage in largest amounts at 
the beginning of the fattening period, providing abundant 
shelter, and that in most instances the silage is withdrawn 
from the ration several weeks before the cattle are fin- 
ished, and who do not depend upon silage exclusively. 
Several practical feeders have expressed the opinion that 
the main utility of silage is to prepare cattle for heavy 
feeding by putting them in condition to feed well; that 
as an appetizer and a laxative it has great value in start- 
ing cattle on feed.'* 

The Investigations of the Ohio and Indiana Stations 



SILAGE FOR FATTENING. 31 

regarding the use of corn silage for fattening beef cattle, 
Indicate that it can be used to good advantage, when 
stover and hay are high in price. The Farmer's Guide of 
[ndianapolis thus comments on the matter: 

"Forty-two head of steers, most of them grade Short- 
horns, were used in an experiment in which 25 pounds of 
silage per steer was fed daily. The ration which included 
the silage gave almost exactly the same rate of gain as 
did the dry ration. 

"No difference in the finish of the two sets of cattle was 
apparent. This was shown by the fact that although when 
the cattle were at market, one pen contained only silage- 
fed cattle and another only dry-fed cattle. A buyer of 
wide experience, without knowing how the cattle had been 
fed, purchased both lots at the same price. Other expert 
cattlemen failed to note any difference between the two 
lots. 

"It is not to be expected that silage alone or silage and 
other rough feed will produce a high finish in a short 
feeding period, since not enough grain is present in the 
silage for this purpose. Less shelled corn, however, was 
required by the steers that received silage than by the 
ones that received only dry feed. 

"The results obtained by the Ohio station with the feed- 
ing of silage to beef cattle are similar to the experience 
of the Indiana station, where it was found that silage added 
to the feeding ration was an advantage in the way of 
providing succulence. Several practical feeders have made 
a marked success with this feed and do not hesitate to 
recommend it. In fact, one Ohio man has several large 
silos, which he fills annually especially for feeding his 
beef cattle. 

"When it is figured that all the feeding value of the 
corn plant is preserved in the form of silage; that there 
is an immense saving in storage space; that it is easier 
handled in feeding, and that all animals eat it with a 
relish, it seems that the farmer might, with advantage, 
give silage a little more consideration. A silo, well filled 
will provide plenty of succulent, nutritious feed for live 
stock during that period of the year when pastures are 
short and during the winter months when green feed is 
unobtainable." 

The Indiana Experiment Station reports the results of 
a six months' feeding trial, wherein "one lot of steers was 



32 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

fed a ration of shelled corn, cotton seed meal and a full 
ration of corn silage. A second was fed a ration of shelled 
corn, cotton seed meal, some hay and about one-half a 
full ration of corn silage, while a third lot was fed all the 
corn and clover they would eat. Corn was valued at 
60 cents a bushel, cotton seed meal at $27 per ton, clover 
hay at $8 per ton, and corn silage at $3 per ton. At the 
beginning of the experiment the lots did not vary more 
than 25 pounds in total weight and all steers were pur- 
chased at the same price per hundred-weight. There were 
ten steers in each lot, and hogs followed each lot to con- 
sume feed left in the droppings. 

The experiment opened Nov. 18, 1908, and closed May 
17, 1909. During this period of six months the first lot 
gained 4,658.3 pounds, or an average of 2.58 pounds per 
day; the second, 4,211.6 pounds, or 2.33 pounds per day; 
the third, 3,416.6, or 1.89 pounds per day. The lot receiving 
the full silage ration, therefore, gained more than a half 
pound more per day than the lot receiving no silage, while 
that receiving half a full silage ration gained somewhat 
less than half a pound more also than the lot receiving 
no silage. 

The cost of a pound of gain for the full silage fed lot 
was $9.79; for the lot having a half silage ration, $11.35, 
and for the clover and corn fed lot, $12.99. In the same 
order the first lot sold at $7.25 per hundredweight, or 99 
cents higher than was necessary to sustain neither loss 
Qor gain on the proposition. The second sold at $7.15, or 54 
nts more than was necessary to sustain no loss, and the 
. at $6.90, or only 15 cents above the cost. The pork 

duced behind the first lot netted $107.23, behind the 
second $124.61, and the third, $97.68. The net profit re- 
Bulting from feeding the ten steers receiving a full silage 
ration, shelled corn and cotton seed meal, was $24.04 per 
head, including the profit from the pork produced, that of 
the ten steers fed a half silage ration, some hay and shelled 
corn and cotton seed meal, $19.71 per head, and those re- 
ceiving clover and shelled corn only, $12.64 per head, both 



SILAGE FOR BEEP CATTLE. 33 

also including profit on the pork. The first lot, therefore, 
appears at an advantage of $11.33 per steer over the lot 
receiving no silage, while the second lot also appears at 
an advantage of $7.07 per steer over this lot. Judging 
from these results, the silo is a paying investment to the 
beef feeder. The difference in net profit from feeding 
these 30 steers the full silage ration and the corn and 
clover ration alone, would amount to $339.90 in favor of 
the full silage ration." 

Indiana and Ohio seem to have set the pace for feeding 
silage to beef cattle, and an increasingly large number of 
Bilos is being erected as a result of the stimulus given 
to this kind of feeding. The Breeder's Gazette of Chi- 
cago says: 

"Indiana feeders who have demonstrated to their own 
satisfaction that silage is valuable for beef production 
are expanding their operations this season, and have been 
liberal buyers at Chicago, Omaha and Kansas City. South- 
ern Michigan will feed an unusually large number of cattle, 
owing to scarcity of lambs. Illinois has been a heavy pur- 
chaser both at Kansas City and Omaha, and Chicago 
could have sent five good feeding steers into nearby terri- 
tory where one has been available. 

"Continued high prices have encouraged cattle feeding 
in sections where, according to confident prophecy, the 
industry was on the wane." 

Quoting again from an agricultural publication: 

"The Kansas stations report that steers fed a ration 
with silage made better gains, and excelled those without 
silage as prime beef. The Ontario Agricultural College 
reports that more rapid gains and cheaper gains were 
made on grain and silage than on grain and hay or grain 
and roots. 

"From results it appears that cattle receiving silage as 
their sole roughness during the winter, made the largest 
average gains, did not drift materially when turned on 
grass after the first ten days, slaughtered out to better ad- 
vantage than dry-fed cattle, and were in a thriftier and 
better condition throughout the entire feeding period. This 
would go to show that succulent foods can be fed to cattle 
maintained as stockers and finished on grass. Larger re- 
turns can b© got from feeding silage to cattle than from 
S 



34 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

grazing them. This is only natural when we consider that 
an acre of corn yielding eight tons of silage will keep four 
cows 180 days, while an acre of pasture will keep only one 
cow that long." 

It is a mistake for the feeder to regard either silage 
or hay as a satisfactory substitute for the other, to the 
extent of entirely replacing one with the other. Says Mr. 
C. F. Curtiss of the Iowa Elxperiment Station: 

"The chief cause of complaint in the use of silage 
arises from the fact that it is too often regarded as a 
complete ration. The use of silage does not dispense with 
the use of grain, except in case of very moderate feeding 
for maintenance, without much reference to grain. Where 
good corn silage is used it may usually be substituted for 
about two-thirds the hay and about one-third the grain 
that would be used in full feeding, without the silage. 

"Clover hay is well adapted to supplement silage to 
correct the excessive acidity of heavy silage feeding and 
also to furnish the protein nutrients in which silage is 
lacking. It should not be left out of the ration when feed- 
ing silage." 

Prof. Plumb of the Ohio Agricultural College has this 
to say on the subject: 

"If silage is fed under cover, and to cattle not wallowing 
in mud or oozy manure, then good results will generally 
come from its use. However, hay or other dry roughage 
should also be fed. Silage fed twice a day and hay once 
should give good results. When cattle are being finished 
for shipment, then the amount of silage fed should be 
reduced and the dry roughage increased, this to prevent 
much shrinkage in shipping. However, in what is known 
as rational feeding, but little shrinkage is apt to occur 
from the use of the silage. In experiments with steers 
fed different rations at the Virginia station, those fed 
silage showed no appreciable shrinkage in the market 
over those fed exclusively dry feed. 

"In feeding experiments conducted at the Missouri 
station in 1906-7 with steers weighing about 800 pounds 
each at the beginning, those fed silage ate less dry matter 
than those fed whole stover or shredded stover and gained 
in weight, while the dry stover lots lost. The same sort 
of results were also secured from feeding siloed stover 
compared with air-dried material." 



SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. ^ 35 

One of the largest feeders of beef cattle in the East, 
Hon. Humphrey Jones, scored a center shot for "silage- 
for-beef" when he remarked: 

"We carry upon the same land more than fifty per 
cent, more cattle than we did before we had the silos, and 
whatever the correct theory of the matter may be, this 
solid hard fact is sufficient to satisfy us that very much 
more can be got out of the corn plant fed in the form of 
silage than when fed dry in any manner which is practi- 
cable with us." 

Mr Jones has large stock farms at Washington C. H., 
Ohio. He is a heavy feeder of steers — feeds from 500 to 
1,000 annually — and he makes ensilage a very large factor 
in the ration. He speaks therefore from the standpoint 
of practical experience, and being a thorough business 
farmer, his statements can be relied upon as accurate. 
On this subject Mr. Jones says: 

"We have found in the experience of feeding all kinds 
of cattle, trom calves to three-year-olds, that we can get 
as good gains from feeding ensilage as in any other method 
of feeding that we were ever familiar with. We add to 
our silage, of course, clover hay or alfalfa. We grow large 
quantities of these. During most of the time we have 
added to our corn soy beans cut in with it, because they 
are very rich in protein. In addition to that we have fed 
cottonseed meal with the silage, and it is an ideal way 
to feed it, because cottonseed meal is a thing by which 
cattle may be injured if it is not properly fed. When 
sprinkled over the ensilage it is mingled with all that 
mass of roughage, and you can feed from three to five 
pounds of cotton seed meal for six months to cattle with- 
out any serious effects at all. We advise starting with 
about two pounds of cottonseed meal, and increasing up 
toward the end of the period to about five pounds; and 
with that, without the addition of a grain of corn, we have 
been able to make gains as rapidly and put the cattle in 
better finish than we were ever able to do in any other 
way. 

"Fifty bushels of corn to the acre will make about 
ten tons of ensilage as it comes from the field, and about 
eight tons as it comes out of the silo. There is a weight 
of about 3,000 pounds of corn in that, which you see is 
about 20 per cent, of the total weight as fed to the cattle; 



36 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

and the steer will eat about fifty pounds a day, which con- 
tains ten pounds of corn; and he is getting it in a form 
that he digests and utilizes every pound. If you add to 
that two to five pounds of cottonseed meal, all our infor- 
mation upon that matter is that it has a feeding value of 
about two and one-half times shelled corn; so that if you 
give a steer five pounds of cottonseed meal, he is getting 
an equivalent of ten pounds or more of corn, in addition 
to the ten pounds of actual corn fed in the ensilage. If he 
digests and utilizes every pound of the twenty pounds of 
corn, either in the form of cottonseed meal or shelled 
corn, he will do well, if he has all the good roughage he 
wants. In addition to that, this ensilage puts him in the 
shape that he is when he is on grass. It is a succulent, 
cooling food, that keeps his hair in the same condition 
as when he is on grass, and it finishes him up evenly. Our 
experience has been that they finish up more uniformly 
on the ensilage than on dry feed. These gains, as you can 
see, if they are made as rapidly on the ensilage, hay, and 
cottonseed meal as they can be made in any other way, 
must be made much more economically, because you are 
utilizing there the stalk and the leaves and the husks of 
the corn plant, which, as I have said, counting the corn 
worth 40 cents a bushel, and fifty bushels to the acre, is 
worth two-fifths as much as the ears; so you are feeding 
about $12 or $18 worth that you are wasting in the ordi- 
nary way of feeding. 

."Briefly, therefore, it is our experience that the feed- 
ing of ensilage to cattle is valuable. It has long been recog- 
nized as an indispensable in the dairy, and I could never 
understand why, if it was good to put fat in the milk pail, 
it would not be good to put fat on the back. There is es- 
sentially no difference in the process that takes place in 
the digestive tract." 

Speaking of the feeding value of corn when put in the 
silo, Mr. Jones continues: 

"The putting of the corn in the silo is .not going to in- 
crease the feeding value of it a particle, but it will render 
the grains more digestible. The food in a large silo is 
always so hot that you can't hold your hand in it, through 
the process of fermentation; and it therefore puts the 
grain in condition so that it is more easily and completely 
digested. But with a practical feeder of cattle that is not 
a very material thing. It does not matter if the cattle 
do waste a great deal of the corn; he has the hogs to 



SILAGE-FED BEEF CATTLE. 37 

gather it up. So there is no increased value in the grain 
by putting it in the silo, notwithstanding the fact that the 
steer will digest a larger per cent, of it. The only place 
that the benefit or gain comes in is through getting the 
full value of the stalks. You do get every pound of that, 
because the steer will eat it up completely. Our experi- 
ence covering a period of eight years is that the figure 
of 40 per cent, value in the stalks is not too high; in 
fact, I think it is low. Practically, I believe, the feeding 
value of corn by putting it in a silo is doubled. We have 
been able to carry twice as many cattle as we could 
before. 

With three-fourths of the feeders in the principal cattle- 
feeding sections of Ohio, shock corn only is fed and the 
corn stands out in the field all winter and is hauled to 
the feed lot as needed. Many shocks twist down and par- 
tially or wholly rot, all are soaked with the rains and 
beaten by the winds, get hard and woody, and are thus 
more or less damaged. It is a matter of common know- 
ledge 'among feeders that after the first of March the 
fodder in shock corn is of little value. Under favorable 
conditions, fattening cattle will eat only the best portions 
of the fodder, and the great bulk of it is wasted and thrown 
out to keep them up out of the mud. With all these things 
taken into consideration the gain in feed value to the 
average cattle feeder* who uses shock corn, by reason of 
siloing the corn is, in our judgment, not less than fifty 
per cent." 

Silage-fed Beef Cattle in the South. 

After exhaustive experiments conducted at the Vir- 
ginia Station, Prof. Andrew M. Soule concludes that the 
results obtained illustrate the value of silage as a main- 
tenance food for winter feeding, whether the animals are 
to be slaughtered immediately or carried over and grazed 
during the summer; also, that silage can be used most 
advantageously by stockmen in the South and that its 
utilization would confer many advantages which are not 
now enjoyed and would add very much to the profits se- 
cured fi'om the winter feeding of beef animals, no matter 
what disposition is to be made of them. He adds that the 
character of the silage has much to do with its efficiency 
as a food stuff, and the skill and intelligence displayed 



38 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

in combining it with suitable companion foods exercise a 
determining influence on the results obtained under a 
given set of conditions. The vast importance of silage 
as an economic factor in the production of beef in the 
South is clearly demonstrated by the results set forth 
in the test in question. 

"The test of 1906-7 covered a period of 149 days, during 
which time the average ration consumed was between 8 
and 9 pounds of concentrates, from 35 to 39 pounds of 
silage and about 2 pounds of dry stover or hay. It was^ 
found advisable to feed the small amount of dry food indi- 
cated to overcome the laxative tendencies of the silage, 
but it was surprising to find what a very small amount of 
dry food accomplished this end. 

Waste of Roughness, 

"As in previous tests, there was no silage wasted. The 
percentage of roughness wasted in the form of stover 
varied from 30.1 to 44.1 per cent, of the total amount fed. 
With the hay this varied from 1.7 to 4.5 per cent. For some 
reason some of the groups did not eat the hay nearly as 
well as the others. These results would indicate, roughly 
speaking, that from 3 to 4 per cent, of the hay ordinarily 
fed would be wasted, and at least one-third of the stover. 
These figures but emphasize again the great advantage 
of silage, which owing to its ease of mastication, palata- 
bility and pleasant aroma, when properly made, provides 
a most inviting form of roughness for cattle. 

Shrinking of Silage^fed Cattle. 

"It has generally been said that cattle fed on silage as 
the principal roughness would lose very materially in live 
weight when shipped long distances. The cattle in this 
test were shipped to .Jersey City under the usual condi- 
tions, the shrinkage per group varying from 197 to 213 
pounds. There was little to choose between the groups 
in the actual loss observed. The actual loss per individual 
amounted to only 41.2 pounds, which is a comparatively 



SHRINKING OF SILAGB-FED CATTLE. 39 

slight shrinkage with any lot of cattle shipped such a 
long distance. In fact, practical shippers and handlers 
in this State figure the average shrinkage to Jersey City 
at from 60 to 76 pounds. 

"There does not seem to be any justification, therefore, 
for claiming that silage fed cattle will drift more than 
cattle fed in other ways. Wlhen these cattle were sent 
to Jersey City a representative of the Station who accom- 
panied them found the buyers much prejudiced against 
cattle from the South, stating that they did not kill out 
well, and that the meat was of a dark color, and the bone 
very hard. Though these cattle presented as good an ap- 
pearance as many of the corn fed animals shipped from 
the West and on sale at the same time, the buyers per- 
sisted in discriminating against them because of the belief 
that silage fed cattle would not kill out advantageously 
or make a first-class quality of beef. The cattle followed 
through the slaughter pens, however, killed out as well 
and better in many instances than the corn fed cattle 
from the West, and the meat was of superior quality, the 
fat and lean being better blended, and the color particu- 
larly good. This lot of cattle dressed out 56.9 per cent., 
which is very creditable, considering that they were ordi- 
nary grade, and fed but 150 days on a ration which has 
been regarded as eminently unsatisfactory for feeding 
beef cattle to a finish. These figures seem to amply justify 
the claim that silage is a most satisfactory roughness for 
beef cattle, and that animals fed on it will ship well, kill 
well and produce meat of fine quality. And these conclu- 
sions seem justified even in the face of competition with 
western corn fed cattle. 

"The efficiency of silage as a valuable food for Southern 
stockmen when fed under the conditions prevailing in this 
test needs no further vindication in the light of the facts 
here set forth, and should do much to encourage the pro- 
duction of beef in sections where the natural conditions 
by reason of the insufficiency of grass are supposed to be 
a barrier to this phase of animal industry. 



40 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. 

, Silage Good for Stockers, 

"Experiments were also conducted for two years with 
the object of ascertaining which was the best rations to 
feed to animals which it is desired to maintain as cheaply 
as possible and still keep in a growing, vigorous condition 
throughout the winter. It is naturally essential that the 
rations be not fattening in nature or the animals will drift 
much worse when put on grass, but it seems very desirable 
than some grains should be secured rather than feed the 
animals very considerable quantities of expensive foods 
as is now often the case, and have them actually lose in 
live weight rather than make gains during the winter sea- 
son. It has generally been held that silage alone could 
not make a satisfactory winter ration for stockers, and 
so this point has been carefully investigated in the present 
experiment. It has generally been held that cattle fed a 
watery succulent ration in the winter would drift very 
badly when placed on grass. This matter will be discussed 
under the appropriate heading, as the results obtained 
this year are particularly encouraging and in a matter of 
economy favor silage quite markedly. 

Summary Results of 1905-6 and 1906-7. 

"In conclusion, a summary of the results of feeding 124 
head of cattle is presented. Sixty-eight of these cattle 
were fed to a finish in the stall, and fifty-six were carried 
through as stockers and finished on grass. The average 
of the results obtained with such a large number of cattle 
should be fairly reliable. The figures for both years cor- 
respond quite closely and show straight silage, or silage 
and grain to be the most economical ration for use with 
stockers in the winter. Moreover very much larger profits 
can be secured from handling stockers with the price of 
foodstuffs as charged in this report than can be anticipated 
from stall feeding. This does not mean that stall feeding 
can not be practiced in some sections with advantage 



RESULTS OF 1905-6 AND 1906-7. 41 

where grass is at a premium or unavailable. It is proper 
to reiterate that while the cost of finishing in the stall 
is practically twice as much per pound of gain as on grass 
that the figures are presented in an unfavorable light to 
the stall finished cattle. These figures also seem to justify 
the fact that cattle fed on silage yield a superior quality 
of beef, do not drift materially when shipped long dis- 
tances to market, will kill out a good percentage of dressed 
meat as compared with animals finished in the west on 
corn. These results also shown that on a margin of $1.00 
and without taking into consideration the value of the 
manure or the cost of labor, stall feeding can be practiced 
in many sections advantageously even when -the animals 
are charged the highest market prices for the foodstuffs 
utilized. On the other hand, cattle handled as stockers 
will produce a considerable quantity of manure and 
may be made to consume cheap forms of roughness 
made on the farm, will make large profits on a margin 
of 50 cents, and will even make fair profits on a margin 
of 25 cents when the pasture is charged to them at the 
rate of $1.25 per acre. 

"These facts are such as to justify us in recommending 
farmers generally to build silos and utilize silage in their 
winter feeding operations for practically all classes of 
cattle as we believe it can be fed to advantage to calves 
and yearlings and cattle to be finished either in the stall 
or on grass. The construction of a silo is not a costly op- 
eration and it furnishes food for several months in the 
cheapest and easiest form to handle and convey to live 
stock. It is palatable, easy of digestion and assimilation 
and is highly relished by all classes of live stock. It is 
made from a crop that is more widely cultivated than any 
other in America and solves the difficult problem of secur- 
ing satisfactory substitutes for grass in sections where 
the latter does not thrive well. The results taken all in all 
justify the high value we have placed on silage, and it is 
believed that its extensive utilization will result in revo- 
lutionizing the animal industries of the South." 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SILAGE SYSTEM HELPS MALNTAL\ 
SOIL FERTILITY. 

When the cattle feeders of this country once thoroughly 
realize that they can profitably feed and raise stock by 
means of the silage system, the great problem of maintain- 
ing and increasing soil fertility will very largely solve 
itself, and exhausted soils will recuperate of their own 
accord. 

This statement is based on certain fundamental facts, 
which Farmer's Bulletin No. 180 covers briefly as follows: 

"When subjected to proper chemical tests or processes 
every substance found on our globe, no matter whether it 
belongs to the mineral, vegetable or animal kingdom, 
may be reduced to single elements, of which we now 
know over seventy. Many of these elements occur but 
rarely, and others are present everywhere in abundance. 
United mostly in comparatively simple combinations of 
less than half a dozen each, these elements make up 
rocks, soils, crops, animals, the atmosphere, water, etc. 
The crops in their growth take some of the elements from 
the soil in which they grow and others from the air. 
Many elements are of no value to crops; a few, viz., 13 
or 14, are, on the other hand, absolutely necessary to the 
growth of plants; if one or more of these essential ele- 
ments are lacking or present in insufficient quantities in 
the soil, the plant cannot make a normal growth, no matter 
in what quantities the others may occur, and the yields 
obtained will be decreased as a result." 

The problem of the conservation of soil fertility is 
therefore largely one of maintaining a readily available 
supply of the essential plant elements in the soil. Most of 
these elements occur in abundance in all soils, and there 
are really only about three of them that the farmer need 
seriously consider — nitrogen, phosphorous and potash. 

42 



EXPERIMENT COVERING THIRTY YEARS. 43 

Every time that a crop is grown it robs the soil of a valu- 
able portion of these elements. A ton of clover hay for 
instance, takes from the soil $10.55 worth of fertilizer. 
One hundred bushels of corn contains 148 pounds of nitro- 
gen, 23 pounds of phosphorous and 71 pounds of potash, 
worth at present market prices, 15, 12 and 6 cents per 
pound, respectively, or $28.72. That much fertilizer is re- 
moved with every 100-bushel corn crop. Other crops vary 
in proportion. It is clear, therefore, that unless these ele- 
ments are put back into the soil in some way, it will pro- 
duce steadily declining crops and soon become exhausted 
or mined out. How to put them back at the least expense 
is our problem, and it is not alone for the benefit of future 
generations; it has a vital bearing on our own crop yields. 

At the Illinois Experiment Station, an experiment cov- 
ering 30 years shows the startling effect of continuous crop 
farming: 

"At this station the yield on a typical prairie soil has 
decreased under continuous corn raising from 70 bushels 
to the acre to 27 bushels to the acre during this period, 
while under a system of crop rotation and proper fertiliza- 
tion the yield on a portion of the same field has been in- 
creased during the same period to 96 bushels per acre. 
These yields are not of a certain year, but averages of 
three-year periods. The 96 bushels was obtained in a 
three-year rotation in which corn was followed by oats in 
which clover was sown. The next year clover alone, fol- 
lowed by corn again. Stable manure with commercial 
fertilizers was applied to the clover ground to be plowed 
under for corn. The difference in the yields obtained be- 
tween the rotation system where fertility was applied 
and the straight corn cropping without fertility was 
69 bushels per acre, or over two-and-a-half times that of 
the system of continuous corn raising. A large proportion 
of this difference in yield is clear profit, as the actual 
expense of producing the 96 bushels to the acre was but 
little more than in growing the 27. If the results of these 
two yields were figured down to a nicety, and the value 



44 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.- 

of the land determined by the net income, it would be 
found that the well farmed acres would be worth an enor- 
mous price as compared with a gift of the land that pro- 
duced the smaller yield." 

Barn-yard manure makes splendid fertilizer. It is per- 
haps the most important for soil improvement. The rea- 
son for this is that it supplies nitrogen, phosphorous and 
potash and the decaying organic matter needed. In feed- 
ing oats, corn, wheat or other crops to animals, it is well 
to know that about three-quarters of the phosphorous and 
nitrogen and practically all of the potash go through the 
body and are returned in the solid and liquid manure. It 
is evident that the value or richness of the manure de- 
pends largely on the crops or part of the crops fed to the 
animals. Leguminous crops are rich in nitrogen and phos- 
phorous. Three and one-half tons of clover will contain 
as much phosphorous and 40 pounds more nitrogen than 
100 bushels of corn, i. e.: 23 pounds phosphorous and 188 
pounds nitrogen. Any system of farming where grain is 
sold and only stalks and straw retained for feed produces 
manure weak in both nitrogen and phosphorous. These 
elements are divided in the corn plant on the 100-bushel 
basis, about as follows: 

100 lbs. nitrogen in grain and 48 lbs. in the stalk. 
17 lbs. phosphorous in grain and 6 lbs. in the stalk. 
19 lbs. potassium in grain and 52 lbs. in the stalk. 

In other words, two-thirds of the nitrogen, three-fourths 
of the phosphorous and one-fourth of the potassium are 
in the grain or seed and one-third of the nitrogen, one- 
fourth of the phosphorus and three-fourths of the potas- 
sium are in the stalk or straw. In siloing the corn plant 
the full value of the fertilizer, in both stalk and grain, is 
obtained in the manure. 

The value of manure depends very largely on the way 
in which it is handled. Over half the value is in the liquid 
portion. 

Experiments were conducted at the Ohio Experiment 
Station with two lots of steers for six months to ascertain 



NITROGEN A VALUABLE ELEMENT. 45 

the loss through seepage. An earth floor was used for one 
lot and a cement floor for the other lot. Manure was 
weighed and analyzed at the beginning and end of the 
experiments and it was found that that produced on the 
earth floor had lost enough fertilizer through seepage 
during the experiments to have paid half the cost of ce- 
menting the floor. 

Losses through weathering and leaching are also com- 
mon and should be avoided. Experiments at the same 
station, during 12 years, show that fresh manure produced 
increase in crop yields over yard manure amounting to 
about one-fourth of the total value of the manure. 

Nitrogen is manure's most valuable element measured 
by the cost of replacing it in commercial fertilizer. It 
heats when lying in heaps and the strong ammonia odor, 
due to the combination of the nitrogen in the manure and 
the hydrogen of the moisture of the heap, indicates th^at 
in time all the nitrogen will escape in the form of am- 
monia gas. It is said that a ton of manure contains about 
10 pounds of nitrogen, worth $1.'50 or $2.00, so that this 
loss of nitrogen is a serious one. 

An average dairy cow of 1,000 pounds weight, properly 
fed, will throw off $13.00 worth of nitrogen and potash 
a year in her urine. A horse will throw off $18.00 worth. 
Urine has a greater fertilizing value than manure, and 
together they become ideal. 

Every farmer can have his own manure factory by 
keeping live stock. Naturally, the more live stock the 
farm can keep, the more manure he will have for returning 
to the soil. 

The silo here comes in as a material aid, and with its 
adoption it is possible to keep at least twice as much live 
stock on a given area of land. Pasturing cattle is becom- 
ing too expensive a method. High priced lands can be 
used to better advantage by growing the feeding crop and 
siloing it, without any waste, to be preserved and fed 
fresh and green the year around. This method, as we have 



46 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. 

said, will insure the maximum supply of splendid fertiliz- 
ing material. 

But the silo does more — it converts the farm into a 
factory as it were — i. e., it will become a creator of a fin- 
ished or more nearly finished product instead of being the 
producer of a mere raw material. The effect will be to 
raise proportionately the price of every commodity offered 
for sale, 

"On the ordinary farm which markets cereal crops 
only a part is ever sufficiently fertile to return a profit. 
The other acres must be put by to regain fertility and are 
so much dead capital while they are made ready for a 
further effort. Not so with a farm devoted to beef as the 
market crop. Every acre of it may be seen producing 
year after year in an increasing ratio, and occasional 
crops such as potatoes — which while they need a rich 
soil for their development yet draw but lightly on fertility 
and are very useful as cleaning crops — will yield bumper 
profits in cash." 

This statement applies with full force to what is an- 
other very desirable attribute of the silo and the silage 
system — that it will so increase the live stock of the farm 
that many of the products heretofore sold in a raw state, 
and which contain, and therefore carry away most of the 
fertility of the farm, may now be fed at home. 

A few examples will best serve to illustrate this state- 
ment: 

The fertilizing constituents in a ton of clover hay, as 
above stated, amount nominally to $10.55. This would 
mean then that every time the farmer sells a ton of clover 
hay, he sells $10.55 worth of fertility. So much fertility 
has gone from the farm forever. It would most certainly 
be wise to feed the clover at home as a balance to the sil- 
age ration, thereby keeping the fertility on the farm, and 
making at the same time some finished product, as cream, 
milk, butter, cheese or beef, the sale of which will not 
carry away from the farm any great amount of fertility. 



EXAMPLE OP A FINISHED PRODUCT. 47 

The sale of a ton of butter, which is perhaps the best 
example of a finished or manufactured product from the 
farm, contains but 27 cents' worth of fertility. Why then 
is it not the part of wisdom to feed the clover hay, which 
contains as above noted, $10.55 in fertility; timothy hay, 
$9.05; corn, $7.72, and oats, $10.27, and convert the whole 
into a finished product — butter, which when sold takes 
but 27 cents in fertility away with it? 



CHAPTER V. 

HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Before taking up for consideration the more impor- 
tant type of silo construction, it will be well to explain 
briefly a few fundamental principles in regard to the 
building of silos which are common to all types of silo 
structures. When the farmer understands these principles 
thoroughly, he will be able to avoid serious mistakes in 
building his silo and will be less bound by specific direc- 
tions, that may not always exactly suit his conditions, than 
would otherwise be the case. What is gtated in the fol- 
lowing in a few words is in many cases the result of 
dearly-bought experiences of pioneers in siloing; many 
points may seem self-evident now, which were not under- 
stood or appreciated until mistakes had been made and 
a full knowledge had been accumulated as to the condi- 
tions under which perfect silage can be secured. 

General Requirements for Silo Structures, 

1. The silo must be air-tight. We have seen that 
the process of silage making is largely a series of fer- 
mentation processes. Bacteria (small plants or germs, 
which are found practically everywhere) pass into the 
silo with the corn or the siloed fodder, and, after a short 
time, begin to grow and multiply in it, favored by the 
presence of air and an abundance of feed materials in 
the fodder. The more air at the disposal of the bacteria, 
the further the fermentation process will progress. If a 
supply of air is admitted to the silo from the outside, the 
bacteria will have a chance to continue to grow, and 
more fodder will therefore be wasted. If a large amount 
of air be admitted, as is usually the case with the top 

48 



GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. 49 

layer of silage, the fermentation process will be more far- 
reaching than is usually the case in the lower layers of 
the silo. Putrifactive bacteria will then continue the 
work of the acid-bacteria, and the result will be rotten 
silage. If no further supply of air is at hand, except what 
remains in the interstices between the siloed fodder, the 
bacteria will gradually die out, or only such forms will 
survive as are able to grow in the absence of air. 

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring 
in siloed fodder has been put forward lately, viz., that 
these are due not to bacteria, but to "intramolecular res- 
piration" in the plant tissue, that is due to a natural dying- 
off of the life substance of the plant cells. From a practical 
point of view it does not make any difference whether the 
one or the other explanation is correct. The facts are 
with us, that if much air is admitted into the silo, through 
cracks in the wall or through loose packing of the siloed 
mass, considerable losses of food substances will take 
place, first, because the processes of decomposition are 
then allowed to go beyond the point necessary to bring 
about the changes by which the silage differs from green 
fodder, and, second, because the decomposition will cause 
more or less of the fodder to spoil or mold. 

2. The silo must be deep. Depth is essential in build- 
ing a silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under consider- 
able pressure, which will cause it to pack well and leave 
as little air as possible in the interstices between the cut 
fodder, thus reducing the losses of food materials to a 
minimum. The early silos built in this country or abroad 
were at fault in this respect; they were shallow struc- 
tures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps, and were longer than they 
were deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to 
weight heavily the siloed fodder placed in these silos, in 
order to avoid getting a large amount of moldy silage. 
In our modern silos no weighting is necessary, since the 
material placed in the silo is suflSciently heavy from the 
great depth of it to largely exclude the air in the siloed 
fodder and thus secure a good quality of silage. In case 
4 



50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on the top is 
smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage 
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the 
silage stored, hence a smaller loss occurs while the silage 
is being fed out, and since the silage is more closely 
packed, less air is admitted from the top. As the silage 
packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow one, the 
former kind of silos will hold more silage per cubic foot 
than the latter; this is plainly seen from the figures given 
in the table on page 53. Silos built during late years have 
generally been over thirty feet deep, and many are forty 
feet deep or more. 

3, The silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls, 
which will allow the mass to settle without forming 
cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will 
settle several feet during the first few days after filling. 
Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from 
settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus formed 
will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. 

4. The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong, 
so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles. The 
lateral (outward) pressure of cut fodder corn when set- 
tling at the time of filling is considerable, and increases 
with the depth of the silage at the rate of about eleven 
pounds per square foot of depth. At a depth of 20 feet 
there is, therefore, an outward pressure of 330 pounds, etc. 
In case of a 16-foot square silo where the sill is 30 feet 
below the top of the silage the side pressure on the lower 
foot of the wall would be about 16x330, or 5280 pounds. 

It is because of this great pressure that it is so diffi- 
cult to make large rectangular silos deep enough to be 
economical, and it is because the walls of rectangular 
silos always spring more or less under the pressure of 
the silage that this seldom keeps as well in them as it does 
in those whose walls cannot spring. 

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues 
to settle, the stronger outward pressure there spreads 
the walls more than higher up and the result is the wall 



SIZE OP THE SILO. 51 

may be actually forced away from the silage so that air 
may enter from above; and even if this does not occur 
the pressure against the sides will be so much lessened 
above by the greater spreading below that if the walls are 
at all open, air will more readily enter through them. 

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop 
and as the wood stretches but little lengthwise there 
can be but little spreading of such walls, and in the case 
of stave silos the iron hoops prevent any spreading, and 
it is on account of these facts that the round silo is 
rapidly replacing every other form. 

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral 
pressure in the silo; cases are on record where a filled 
silo has burned down to the ground with the silage re- 
maining practically intact as a tall stack. 

Other points of importance in silo building which do 
not apply to all kinds of silos, will be considered when 
we come to describe different kinds of silo structures. 
Several questions present themselves' at this point for 
consideration viz., how large a silo shall be built, where 
it is to be located, and what form of silo is pcreferable 
under different conditions? 

On the Size of Silo Required. 

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is 
how large it shall be made. We will suppose that a 
farmer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he wishes 
to feed silage during the winter season, say for 180 days. 
We note at this point that silage will not be likely to 
give best results with milch cows, or with any other class 
of farm animals, when it furnishes the entire portion of 
the dry matter of the feed ration. As a rule, it will not 
be well to feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head. 
If this quantity be fed daily, on an average for a season 
of 180 days, we have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 
pounds, or ninety tons. On account of the fermentation 
processes taking place in the silo, we have seen that 



52 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

there is an unavoidable loss of food materials during the 
siloing period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent.; we 
must, therefore, put more than the quantity given into 
the silo. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one 
hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the silo; 
we figure, therefore, that we shall need about 4 tons of 
silage per head for the winter, but, perhaps, 5 tons per 
head would be a safer calculation, and provide for some 
increase in the size of the herd. 

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less, 
to toward fifty pounds per cubic foot, according to the 
depth in the silo from which it is taken, and the amount 
of moisture which it contains. We may take forty pounds 
as an average weight of a cubic foot of corn silage. One 
ton of silage will, accordingly, take up fifty cubic feet; 
and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular one-hun- 
dred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then 
have a height of 30 feet. If a square silo is wanted, it 
might be given dimensions 12x12x35 feet, or 13x13x30 
feet; if a circular silo the following dimensions will be 
about right: Diameter, 16 feet; height of silo, 26 feet, etc. 
In the same way, a silo holding 200 tons of corn or clover 
silage may be built of the dimensions 16x24x26 feet, 
20x20x25 feet, or if round, diameter, 20 feet, height, 32 
feet, etc. 

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily 
computed as in case of a rectangular silo, we give on fol- 
lowing page a table which shows at a glance the approxi- 
mate number of tons of silage that a round silo, of a 
diameter from 10 to 26 feet, and 20 feet to 32 feet deep, 
will hold. 



CAPACITY OF ROUND SILO. 



53 



APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS, FOR 
WELL-MATURED CORN SILAGE, IN TONS. 



DEPTH OF 


INSIDE DIAMETER OF SILO, FEET. 


SILO, FEET. 


10 

26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
51 


12 

38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 


14 

51 
55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 


15 

59 

63 

67 

72 

76 

81 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 


16 

67 

72 

77 

82 

87 

90 

97 

103 

108 

114 

119 

125 

131 


18 

85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 


20 

105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 


21 

115 
123 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 


22 

127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
174 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
258 


23 

138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
258 
271 


24 

151 
161 

172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
265 
269 
282 
295 


25 

163 

175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
292 
305 
320 


26 


20 


177 


21 


189 


22 


202 


23 


216 


24 


229 


25 

26 


242 
257 


27 


271 


28 


285 


29 


300 


30 


315 


31 


330 


32 


346 







The following table which has been reproduced from 
a trade publication shows at a glance how much silage 
is required to keep eight to forty-five cows for six months, 
feeding them 40 pounds a day, and the dimensions of cir- 
cular silos as well as the area of land required to furnish 
the different amount of feed given, computed at 15 tons per 
acre. The amount of silage given in the table refers 
to the number of tons in the silo after all shrinkage has 
occurred; as the condition of the corn as placed in the 
silo differs considerably, these figures may vary in differ- 
ent years, or with different crops of corn, and should not 
be interpreted too strictly; the manner of filling the silo 
will also determine how much corn the silo will hold; 
if the silo is filled with well-matured corn, and after this 
has settled for a couple of days, filled up again, it will 
hold at least ten per cent, more silage than when it is 
filled rapidly and not refilled after settling. To the per- 
son about to fill a silo for the first time, it is suggested 
that it requires a "good crop" to yield 15 tons per acre, 
and as a "little too much is about right," be sure to plant 
enough to fill the silo full, being guided by the condition 
of soil, etc., under his control. 



54 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



Dimensions. 


Capacity in Tons. 


Acres to fill. 
15 Tons to Acre. 


Cows it will keep 

6 months, 40 lbs. 

feed per day. 


10x20 


28 


3 


8 


' 12 X 20 


40 


3 


11 


12 X 24 


49 


3% 


13 


12 X 28 


60 


4 


15 


14x22 


61 


4V2 


17 


14x24 


67 


4% 


19 


'14 X 28 


83 


5% 


22 


14x30 


93 


6 


23 


16x24 


87 


6% 


24 


16x26 


97 


7 


26 


16x30 


119 


8 


30 


18x30 


151 


101^5 


37 


18x36 


189 


121/3 


45 



On the Form of Silos. 

The first kind of silos built, in this country or abroad, 
were simply holes or pits in the ground, into which the 
fodder was dumped, and the pit was then covered with a 
layer of dirt and, sometimes at least, weighted with 
planks and stones. Then, when it was found that a large 
proportion of the feed would spoil by this crude method, 
separate silo structures were built, first of stone, and 
later on, of wood, brick or cement. As previously stated, 
the first separate silos built were rectangular, shallow 
structures, with a door opening at one end. The silos of 
the French pioneer Siloist, August Goffart, were about 
16 feet high and 40x16 feet at the bottom. Another French 
silo built about fifty years ago, was 206x21 1^ feet and 15 
feet deep, holding nearly 1,500 tons of silage. Silos of a 
similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were built in 
this country in the early stages of silo building. Experi- 
ence has taught siloists that it was necessary to weight 
the fodder heavily in these silos, in order to avoid the 
spoiling of large quantities of silage. In Goffart's silos, 
boards were thus placed on top of the siloed fodder, and 



ON THE FORM OP SILOS. 55 

the mass was weighted at the rate of one hundred pounds 
per square foot. 

It was found, however, after some time, that this 
heavy weighing could be dispensed with by making the 
silos deep, and gradually the deep silos came more and 
more into use. These silos were first built in this country 
in the latter part of the eighties; at the present time 
none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four feet deep are 
built, no matter of what form or material they are made, 
and most silos built are at least twenty-four to thirty 
feet deep, or more. 

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become 
more and more general. These silos have the advantage 
over all other kinds in point of cost and convenience, as 
well as quality of the silage obtained. We shall, later 
on, have an occasion to refer to the relative cost of the 
various forms of silos, and shall here only mention a few 
points in favor of the round silos. 

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square 
ones, because it takes less lumber per cubic foot capacity, 
and because lighter material may be used in their con- 
struction. The sills and studdings here do no work ex- 
cept to support the roof, since the lining acts as a hoop 
to prevent spreading of the walls. 

2. One of the essentials in silo building is that there 
shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the 
silage, as both the cost and the danger from losses 
through spoiling are thereby reduced. The round silos 
are superior to all other forms in regard to this point, 
as will be readily seen from an example: A rectangular 
silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number of square feet 
of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24 feet, and of the 
same depth, or as a circular silo 30 feet in diameter and 
of the same depth; but these silos will hold about the 
following quantities of silage: Rectangular silo, 246 tons; 
square silo, 276 tons; circular silo, 338 tons. Less lum- 
ber will, therefore, be needed to hold a certain quantity 
of silage in case of square silos than in case of rectangular 



56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

ones, and less for cylindrical silos than for. square ones, 
the cylindrical form being, therefore, the most economical 
of the three types. 

3. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after 
a few days, if left exposed to the air; hence the necessity 
of considering the extent of surface exposure of silage in 
the silo while it is being fed out. In a deep silo there is 
less silage exposed to the surface layer in proportion to 
the contents than in a shallow one. Experience has taught 
us that if silage is fed down at a rate slower than 1.2 inches 
daily, molding is liable to set in. About two inches of the 
top layer of the silage should be fed out daily during cold 
weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling; in 
warm weather about three inches must be taken off daily; 
If a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily, there will 
be less waste of food materials; some farmers thus plan 
to feed off 5 or 6 inches of silage daily. The form of the 
silo must therefore be planned, according to the size of 
the herd, with special reference to this point. Professor 
King estimates that there should be a feeding surface in 
the silo of about five square feet per cow in the herd; a 
herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet of 
feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should 
be 14 feet; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter 
of 16 feet will be required; for fifty cows, a diameter of 
18 feet; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 25 1^ feet, etc. 

He gives the following tables showing the number of 
cows required to eat 1.2 to 2 inches of silage daily in silos 
24 to 30 feet deep, assuming that they are fed 40 lbs. of 
silage daily for 180 or 240 days. 



DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE SILO. 



67 



RELATION OF HORIZONTAL FEEDING AREA AND NUMBER 
OF COWS KEPT, FOR SILOS 24 AND 30 FEET DEEP. 





FEED FOR 240 DAYS. 


FEED FOR 180 DAYS. 


NO. 


Silo 
24 feet deep. 


Silo 
30 feet deep. 


Silo 
24 feet deep. 


Silo 
30 feet deep. 


OF 
COWS. 


Rate 

1.2 in. daily. 


Rate 
1.5 in. daily. 


Rate 
1.6 in. daily. 


Rate 
2 in. daily. 




Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


Tons. 


Inside 
diam. 


10... 

15... 

20... 
25... 
30... 
35... 
40... 
45... 
50... 
()0... 
70... 
80... 
90... 
100... 


48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
28S 
336 
384 
432 
480 


Feet. 

12 
15 

17 
19 
21 
22 
24 
26 
27 
29 
32 
34 
36 
38 


48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 


Feet. 

10 
12 

14 
16 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
25 
27 
29 
30 
32 


36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 


Feet. 

10 
13 

15 
16 
18 
19 
21 
22 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 
33 


36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 

288 

324 

360 


Feet. 

9 
11 
12 
14 
15 

16 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
25 
26 
28 



In choosing diameters and depths for silos for par- 
ticular herds, individual needs and conditions must decide 
which is best. It may be said, in general, that for the 
smaller sizes of silos the more shallow ones will be some- 
what cheaper in construction and be more easily filled with 
small powers. For large herds the deeper types are best 
and cheapest. 

One of the most common mistakes made in silo con- 
struction is that of making it too large in diameter for the 
amount of stock to be fed silage. Whenever silage heats 
and molds badly on or below the feeding surface heavy 



58 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

loss in feeding value is being sustained, and in such cases 
the herd should be increased so that the losses may be 
prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.) 

Location of the Silo, 

The location of the silo is a matter of great impor- 
tance, which has to be decided upon at the start. The feed- 
ing of the silage is an every-day job during the whole 
winter and spring, and twice a day at that. Other things 
being equal, the nearest available place is therefore the 
best. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn 
as possible. The condition of the ground must be con- 
sidered. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best 
plan to follow is to build the silo there, in connection with 
the bam, going four feet to six feet below the surface, and 
providing for' door opening directly into the barn. The bot- 
tom of the silo should be on or below the level where the 
cattle stand, and, if practicable, the silage should be moved 
out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While 
it is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be 
so located, in case the silage is used for milk production, 
that silage odors do not penetrate the whole stable, at 
milking or other times. Milk is very sensitive to odors, 
and unless care is taken to feed silage after milking, and 
to have pure air, free from silage odor, in the stables at 
the time of milking, there will be a silage flavor to the 
milk. This will not be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed 
by most people, and some people cannot notice it at all; 
but when a person is suspicious, he can generally discover 
it. So far as is known this odor is not discernable in either 
butter or cheese made from silage-flavored milk, nor does 
it seem to affect the keeping qualities of the milk in any 
way. 

^^ f Different Types of Silo Structures, 

Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick or cement, or 
partly of one and partly of another of these materials. 
Wooden silos may be built of several layers of thin boards 



THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SILOS. 59 

nailed to uprights, or of single planks (staves), or may be 
plastered inside. The material used will largely be de- 
termined by local conditions; where lumber is cheap, and 
stone high, wooden silos will generally be built; where the 
opposite is true, stone or brick silos will have the advan- 
tage in point of cheapness, while concrete silos are likely 
to be preferred where great permanency is desired or 
where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, and lumber 
or stone are hard to get at a reasonable cost. So far as 
the quality of the silage made in any of these kinds of 
silos is concerned, there is no difference when the silos 
are properly built. The longevity of stone and concrete 
silos is usually greater than that of wooden silos, since 
the latter are more easily attacked by the silage juices 
and are apt to decay in places after a number of years, 
unless special precautions are taken to preserve them. A 
well-built and well-cared-for wooden silo should, however, 
last almost indefinitely. 

As regards the form of -the silo, it may be built in 
rectangular form, square, octagon or round. We have 
already seen that the most economical of these is ordi- 
narily the round form, both because in such silos there is 
less wall space per cubic unit of capacity, and in case of 
wooden round silos, lighter material can be used in their 
construction. The only place where silos of square or 
rectangular form are built now is inside of barns, 
where they fit in better than a round structure. We shall 
later on give directions for building silos inside of a barn, 
but shall now go over to a discussion of the various forms 
of round silos that are apt to be met with. More round 
wooden silos have been built during late years in this 
country than of all other kinds of silos combined, and this 
type of silo, either built of uprights lined inside and out- 
side with two layers of half-inch boards, or of one thick- 
ness of staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the 
future; hence we shall give full information as to their 
building, and shall then briefly speak of the other forms 
mentioned which may be considered preferable in ex- 
ceptional cases. 



60 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Round Wooden Silos. 

Round wooden silos were first described, and their use 
advocated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wisconsin 
Station in July, 1891, and hence have come to be known 
as "Wisconsin Silos." The first detailed and illustrated 
description of this type of silos was published in this bulle- 
tin; since that time it has been described in several bulle- 
tins and reports issued by the station mentioned, and in 
numerous publications from other experiment stations. 
All writers who have discussed the question of silo con- 
struction agree that this form of silos is admirable, and 
the best that can be put up where a durable, first-class silo 
of a moderate cost is wanted. This type, and the one to be 
described in the following, the stave silo, are practically 
the only kind of wooden silos that have been built in this 
country during late years, except where unusual conditions 
have prevailed, that would make some other kind of silo 
structure preferable. 

The following description of the Wisconsin silo is from 
the pen of Prof. King, the originator of this type of silos, 
as published in Bulletin No. 83 of the Wisconsin Station 
(dated May, 1900). 

The Foundation — There should be a good, substantial 
masonry foundation for all forms of wood silos, and the 
woodwork should everywhere be at least 12 inches above 
the earth, to prevent decay from dampness. There are 
few conditions where it will not be desirable to have the 
bottom of the silo 3 feet or more below the feeding floor 
of the stable, and this will require not less than 4 to 6 
feet of stone, brick, or concrete wall. For a silo 30 feet 
deep the foundation wall of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet 
thick. 

The inside of the foundation wall may be made flush 
with the woodwork above, or nearly so, as represented in 
Fig. 1, or the building may stand in the ordinary way, flush 
with the outside of the stone wall, as represented in Fig. 
2. In both cases the wall should be finished sloping as 
shown in the drawings. 



ILLUSTRATION. 



61 




10 FEET. 



Fig, 1 . Showing method of placing^ all-wood silos on stone 
foundations, with pit dug out to increase depth. 



62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

So far as the keeping of the silage is concerned it 
makes little difference which of these types of construc- 
tion is adopted. The outward pressure on the silo wall 
is greater where the wall juts into the silo, but the wall 
is better protected against the weather. Where the project- 
ing wall is outside, the silo has a greater capacity, but 
there is a strong tendency for the wall to crack and allow 
rain to penetrate it. Where this plan is followed it is 
important to finish the sloping surface with cement, or to 
shingle it, to keep out the water. 

Bottom of the Silo. — After the silo has been completed 
the ground forming the bottom should be thoroughly 
tamped so as to be solid, and then covered with two or 
three inches of good concrete made of 1 of cement to 3 
or 4 of sand or gravel. The amount of silage which will 
spoil on a hard clay floor will not be large, but enough to 
pay a good interest on the money invested in the cement 
floor. If the bottom of the silo is in dry sand or gravel 
the cement bottom is imperative to shut out the soil air. 

Tying the Top of the Stone Wall. — In case the wood 
portion of the silo rises 24 or more feet above the stone 
work, and the diameter is more than 18 feet, it will be 
prudent to stay the top of the wall in some way. 

If the woodwork rises from the outer edge of the wall, 
then building the wall up with cement so as to cover the 
sill and lining as represented in Figs. 3 and 4 will give 
the needed strength, because the woodwork will act as a 
hoop; but if the silo stands at the inner face of the wall, 
it will be set to lay pieces of iron rod in the wall near the 
top to act as a hoop. 

Where the stone portion of the silo is high enough to 
need a door, it is best to leave enough wall between the 
top and the sill to allow a tie rod of iron to be bedded in 
this portion. So, too, the lower door in the woodwork of the 
silo should have a full foot in width below it of lining and 
siding uncut to act as a hoop, where the pressure is 
strongest. 



ILLUSTRATION. 



63 




6^4 



f 1^ 



/rT^ 



H 



P^S' 2. Showing an all-wood round silo on stone foundation. 
H represents a method of sawing hoards for the conical 
roof. 



64 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 




— m- 



Fig, 3, Showing method of construction for ventilating the 
spaces between the studding in all-wood and lathed-and- 
plastered silos. 



THE STONE FOUNDATION. 



65 



Forming the Sill. — The sill in the all-wood silo may 
be made of a single 2x4 cut in 2-foot lengths, with the 
ends beveled so that they may be toe-nailed together to 
form circle (Fig. 5). 

Setting the Studding. — The studding of the all-wood 
round silo need not be larger than 2x4 unless the diam- 




Flg, 4, Shozving construction of all-zvood silo, and connec- 
tion with wall, flush witJi outside. 



66 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



eter is to exceed 30 feet, but they should be set as close 
together as one foot from center to center, as represented 
in Fig. 6. This number of studs is not required for strength 
but they are needed in order to bring the two layers 
of lining very close together, so as to press the paper 
closely and prevent air from entering where the paper laps. 
Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed, short 
lengths may be lapped one foot and simply spiked together 
before they are set in place on the wall. This will be 
cheaper than to pay the higher price for long lengths. All 
studding should be given the exact length desired before 
putting them in place. 




Fig* 5, Showing method of making the sill of round wood 
silos. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SiLO. 



67 



To stay the studding a post should be set in the 
ground in the center of the silo long enough to reach about 
five feet above the sill, and to this stays may be nailed to 
hold in place the alternate studs until the lower 5 feet of 
outside sheeting has been put on. The studs should be 
set first at the angles formed in the sill and carefully 
stayed and plumbed on the side toward the center. When 
a number of these have been set they should be tied 
together by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around 
the outside as high up as a man can reach, taking care 
to plumb each stud on the side before nailing. Wlien the 




Fig, 6. Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick- 
lined or lathed-and-plastered silo. 



68 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



alternate studs have beeen set in this way the balance may 
be placed and toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the 
rib, first plumbing them sideways and toward the center. 

Setting Studding for Doors. — On the side of the silo 
where the doors are to be placed the studding should be 



2Z5ZS2P^2pZZ2pZ22pZ2^^ 



^yp 

m 



m 



m 



^ 











e 















Fig. 7. Showing the construction of the door for the all- 
wood silo. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 69 

set double and the distance apart to give the desired width. 
A stud should be set between the two door studs as though 
no door were to be there, and the doors cut out at the? 
places desired afterwards. The construction of the door 
is represented in Fig. 7. 

The doors are usually made about 2 feet wide and 
from 2y2 to 3 feet high, and placed one above the other 
at suitable distances apart. It has been suggested that to 
insure security a strip of tar paper should be placed the 
entire length of the silo on the inside over the doors. 

Silo Sheeting and Siding. — The character of the siding 
and sheeting will vary considerably according to condi- 
tions, and the size of the silo. 

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet in- 
side and not much attention need be paid to frost, a single 
layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside of the 
thick edge deep enough to receive the thin edge of the 
board below, will be all that is absolutely necessary on 
the outside for strength and protection against weather. 
This statement is made on the supposition that the lining 
Is made of two layers of fencing split in two, the thrc'e 
layers constituting the hoops. 

If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter, there 
should be a layer of half-inch sheeting outside, under the 
Biding. 

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken 
to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets 
wet before painting. 

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carry- 
ing the work upward until staging is needed, following this 
at once with the siding. Two 8-penny nails should be used 
in each board in every stud, and to prevent the walls from 
getting "cut of round" the succeeding course of boards 
should begin on the next stud, thus making the ends of 
the boards break joints. 

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be 
tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each 
one from side to side; the siding itself will bring them 



70 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care 
Is taken to start new courses as described above. 

Forming the Plate. — When the last staging is up the 
plate should be formed by spiking 2x4's cut in two-foot 
lengths, in the manner of sill, and as represented in Fig. 
8, down upon the tops of the studs, using two courses, 
making the second break joints with the first. 

The Lining of the Wooden Silo. — There are several 
ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round silo, 
out which ever method is adopted it must be kept in mind 
that there are two very important ends to be secured with 




Fig, 8, Shuzvincj construction of conical roof of round silo, 
zvhcre rafters are not used- The outer circle is the lower 
edge of the roof. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 71 

a certainty. These are (1) a lining which shall be and 
remain strictly air-tight, (2) a lining which will be reason- 
ably permanent. 

All Wood Lining of 4-inch Flooring. — If one is willing 
to permit a loss of 10 to 12 per cent, of the silage by heat- 
ing, then a lining of tongued and grooved ordinary 4-inch 
white pine flooring may be made in the manner repre- 
sented in Fig. 9, where the flooring runs up and down. 
When this lumber is put on in the seasoned condition a 
single layer would make tighter walls than can be secured 
with the stave silo where the staves are neither beveled 
nor tongued and grooved. 

In the silos smaller than 18 feet inside diameter the 
two layers of boards outside will give the needed strength, 
but when the silo is larger than this and deep, there would 
be needed a layer of the split fencing on the inside for 
strength; and if in addition to this there is added a layer 
of 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper a lining of very superior 
quality would be thus secured. 

Lining of Half-inch Boards and Paper. — ^Where paper 
is used to make the joints between boards air-tight, as 
represented in Fig. 4, it is extremely important that a 
quality which will not decay, and which is both acid and 
water-proof be used. A paper which is not acid and water- 
proof will disintegrate at the joints in a very short 
time, and thus leave the lining very defective. 

The best paper for silo purposes with which we are 
acquainted is a 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured 
by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It 
is thick, strong, and acid and water-proof. A silo lining 
with two thicknesses of good fencing have only small 
knots, and these llioroughly sound and not black, will 
make an excellent lining. Great care should be taken to 
have the two layers of boards break joints at their cen- 
ters, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches. 

The great danger with this type of lining will be that 
the boards may not press the two layers of paper together 
close enough but that some air may rise between the two 



72 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



sheets where they overlap, and thus gain access to the 
silage. It would be an excellent precaution to take to 
tack down closely with small carpet tacks the edges of the 
paper where they overlap, and if this is done a lap of 4 
Inches will be sufficient. 




^ 



Fig, 9, Shozving the construction of the all-zvood round silo 
zvhere the lining is made of ordinary four-inch flooring 
running up and dozvn, and nailed to girts cut in hetzvecn the 
studding every four feet. 



THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 73 

The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny 
nails, two in each board and stud, and the second or inner 
layer with 10-penny nails, the fundamental object being to 
draw the two layers of boards as closely together as 
possible. 

Such a lining as this will be very durable because 
the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner 
layer of half-inch boards, and this will be kept wet by 
the paper and silage until empty, and then , the small 
thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rotting 
to set in. 

A still more substantial lining of the same type may 
be secured by using two layers of paper between three 
layers of boards, as represented in Fig. 4, and if the cli- 
mate is not extremely severe, or if the silo is only to be 
fed from in the summer, it would be better .to do away 
with the layer of sheeting and paper outside, putting on 
the inside, thus securing two layers of .paper and three 
layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only 
2 inches of lumber. 

The Silo Roof. 

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several 
ways, but the simplest type of construction and the one 
requiring the least amount of material is that represented 
in Figs. 7 and 8, and which is the cone. 

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter 
no rafters need be used; and only a single circle like that 
in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in 
sections in the form of a circle and two layers spiked 
together, breaking joints. 

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the 
inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, 
the boards having been sawed diagonally as represented 
at H, Fig, 2, making the wide and narrow ends the same 
relative widths as the circumferences of the outer edge 
of the roof and of the inner circle. 



74 HOW TO BUILD A StLO. 

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet 
It will be necessary to use two or three hoops according 
to diameter. When the diameter is greater than 25 feet 
it will usually be best to use rafters and headers cut in 
for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards to, which 
are cut as represented at H, Fig. 2. 

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles, 
splitting those wider than 8 inches. By laying the butts 
of the shingles % to V4, of an inch apart it is not neces- 
sary to taper any of the shingles except a few courses 
near the peak of the roof. 

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the 
right exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a 
strip of wood as a radius which works on a center set 
at the peak of the roof and provided with a nail or pencil 
to make a mark on the shingle where the butts of the 
next course are to come. The radius may be bored with 
a series of holes the right distance apart to slip over the 
center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and reset as de- 
sired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling 
hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place. 

Ventilation of the Silo, 

Every silo which has a roof should be provided with 
ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry, 
and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls and 
lining from rotting. One of the most serious mistakes in 
the early construction of wood silos was the making of the 
walls with dead-air spaces, which, on account of damp- 
ness from the silage, led to rapid "dry-rot" of the lining. 

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is im- 
portant to provide ample ventilation for the spaces be- 
tween the studs, as well as for the roof and the inside 
of the silo, and a good method of doing this is represented 
in Fig. 3, where the lower portion represents the sill and 
the upper the plate of the silo. Between each pair of 
studs where needed a ll^-inch auger hole to admit air is 



PAINTING THE SILO LINING. 16 

bored through the siding and sheeting and covered with 
a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the 
top of the silo on the inside, the lining is only covered to 
within two inches of the plate and this space is covered 
with wire netting to prevent silage from being thrown 
over when filling. This arrangement permits dry air from 
outside to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs 
and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the lining 
and studding dry and at the same time drying the under 
side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as 
exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4's 
cut in 2-foot lengths there will be space enough left be- 
tween the curved edge of the siding and sheeting and the 
sill for air to enter so that no holes need be bored as de- 
scribed above and represented in Fig. 3. The openings 
at the plate should always be provided and the silo should 
have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This ventilator 
may take the form of a cupola to serve for an ornament 
as well, or it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 
24 inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the 
peak of the roof. 

Painting the Silo Lining, 

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will 
not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage 
Juices. This being true, when the lining is again exposed 
when feeding" the silage out, the paint greatly retards the 
flrying of the wood work and the result is decay sets in, 
favored by prolonged dampness. For this reason it is 
hest to leave a wood lining naked or to use some antiseptic 
which does not form a water-proof coat. 

The cost of such a silo as that described in the fore- 
going pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12 
cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lining 
consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing, with a 
D-ply Giant P. & B. paper between, and with one layer of 
split fencing outside, covered with rabbetted house siding. 



76 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

[f built inside of the barn, without a roof and not painted, 
the cost would be reduced 3 cents per square foot, or more. 
Silos of this type, 30 feet deep, built outside, provided 
with a roof and including 6 feet of foundation are stated 
to cost as follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capac- 
ity), $183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 
21 feet diameter (206 tons capacity), $298.00; and 25 feet 
diameter (300 tons capacity), $358.00. 

Complete specifications and building plans for a 300- 
ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages, are 
given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage. The dimensions of 
this silo are: Diameter, 26 feet; height, 30 feet. 

According to our present knowledge this form of silo 
is most likely the best that can be built; it is a somewhat 
complicated structure, calls for more time and skill for 
its construction, and costs more than other kinds of 
wooden circular silos especially more than the stave silo 
soon to be described; but once built needs but little at- 
tention and it is durable and economical, being prac- 
tically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed 
fodder are reduced to a minimum. 

Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo, 

Several modifications of the Wisconsin Silo have been 
proposed and have given good satisfaction; one is de- 
scribed by Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bul- 
letin No. 91, as follows: 

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way 
up there are three layers of sheeting against the studs 
with tarred paper between. The upper half of the studs 
has but two layers of sheeting. The sheeting was made 
by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks and sawing to make 
four boards. The silo rests on a stone wall 18 inches deep 
and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches 
inside diameter, and holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive 
but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of this 



PLASTERED ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 77 

structure is as follows: As the work was all done by the 
regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given 
at estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00; 5 
rolls of paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40; 
labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was 
so pleased with the service this one had rendered since 
its construction, that he built another like it during the 
summer of 1902. This silo is connected by a covered pas- 
sage and chute with the feeding floor of the cattle barn. 

The construction of this type of silo calls for as much 
care in putting on sheeting, making doors and keeping 
out the air at these places and at the foundation, as it 
required with the more expensive forms previously de- 
scribed. The need for outer siding will depend in a large 
measure on circumstances. The farmer building the silo 
(living in Central Indiana) has had no trouble with his 
silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would 
naturally be more necessary than in the southern part of 
this state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary, 
although it does materially add to the attractiveness of 
the silo. 

Plastered Round Wooden Silos. 

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor 
among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred 
by many for either the original or the modified Wisconsin 
silo, on account of their ease of construction and their 
durability. In the experience of H. B. Gurler, a well known 
Illinois dairyman, who has built several silos on his farm 
in the course of the last dozen years, the walls of plastered 
silos keep perfectly and there is no waste from moldy 
silage along the wall; neither is there any difficulty about 
cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a 
good quality of cement is used. Gurler described the con- 
struction of his plastered silo in a recent number of 
Breeder's Gazette, accompanying his description with build- 
ing plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter 
changed and improved in some points of minor impor- 



78 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



tance, and give below a brief description of the method of 
building silos of this type. (See Figs. 91/^ and 10.) 

The foundation may be made of stone, brick or ce- 
ment, and is carried to the proper distance above ground. 
Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled 
at the ends so as to be toe-nailed together to form a 
circle of the same diameter as the interior diameter of 
the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded in asphalt 
or cemented mortar, and on this the studding is erected, 
using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside 
sheeting was secured by having 6-inch fencing re sawed, 
making the material a little less than i/^-inch thick. On 
this was nailed laths made from the same material, the 










£^,'e-vd!ion 



Jat/f ^e" = /'-> 



^rrcfion 



Fig. 9X2, Elevation and section of plastered round ivooden 
silo. 



PLASTERED ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 



79 



laths being made with beveled edges so that when nailed 
onto the sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheet- 
ing is put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the 
laths, to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until 
it is broken. The patent grooved lath might be used, 
but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better 
than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting 
or metal lath of one form or another, such as is now gen- 
erally used in outside plastering of houses, nailed on strips 
of lx2's which are placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto 
the studding through the sheeting. Metal lath will not 
take up moisture from the silage juices, and thus expand 
and possibly cause the plaster to crack, as would be likely 
to occur in case of 'wooden laths. For outside sheeting 



■ ^ 'A*S/</€ /in/no C »»'flfe 







Fig'. 10, Foundation plan and section of plastered round 
ivooden silo. 




80 



BRICK LINED SILOS. 81 

similar material as that used for inside sheeting may be 
used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no 
outside sheeting would be required, although it would add 
greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being certain that the 
inside sheeting, laths and cement offered sufficient resist- 
ance to the outward pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put 
on wooden hoops outside of the studding, of the same 
material as for the inside sheeting, putting it on double 
thickness and breaking joints. The silo described, which 
would hold 250-300 tons, cost $300, without a roof. Mr. 
Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and 
estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given 
a wash of cement every three years and if any cracks that 
may start be filled before the silo is filled again. 

Brick Lined Silos, 

As an illustration of silos of this type we give below 
a description of the silo built in connection with the 
Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experiment Station; the ac- 
companying figures, 11 and 12, will show the exterior ap- 
pearance of the barn and silo, and a plan of the eastern 
half of the first floor of this barn. 

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter 
and 33 feet deep. It is a framed structure lined inside and 
outside with brick. On 2x6-inch uprights, two wrappings 
of %-inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put, breaking joints, 
with no paper between. Brick is laid tight against this 
lining, and on the brick surface is a heavy coating of 
Portland cement (1 part cement, 1 part sand). On the 
outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small 
open space between (about ^/^ inch). The silo is filled 
from the third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being 
hauled directly onto this floor over the trestle shown to 
the right in Fig. 11, and there run through the feed cut- 
ter. When the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls' 
through a box chute to the main floor where it is received 
into a truck (Fig. 30) in which it is conveyed to the 
mangers of the animals. 
6 



82 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 






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THE STAVE SILO. 83 

An illustration and description of the original round 
silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station 
in 1891 are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage, where 
descriptions and illustrations of a number of other first- 
class round wooden silos will also be found, like those 
constructed at the Experiment Stations in New Jersey, 
Missouri, and South Dakota. 

Stave Silos. 

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo 
buildings, and partly for this reason, partly on account of 
its cheapness of construction, more silos of this kind have 
been built during the past few years than any other silo 
type. 

Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been 
favorably mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, 
as well as by experiment station men. In the recent bulle- 
tin from Cornell Experiment Station, we find the stave 
silo spoken of as "the most practical and successful silo 
which can be constructed," and the Ottawa Experiment 
Station is on record for the following statement in regard 
to the stave silo: "From extensive observation and study 
of silos and silo construction, and from experience here 
with a number of different silos, it would appear that the 
stave silo is the form of cheap silos that for various 
reasons is most worthy of recommendation. It combines 
simplicity and cheapness of construction with the requisite 
conditions to preserve the silage in the very best condi- 
tions for feeding." 

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large 
railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory 
silos should be built as well as a No. 1 water tank. The 
first stave silos were built in this country in the begin- 
ning of the nineties; they soon found some enthusiastic 
friends, while most people, including nearly all writers 
and lecturers on silo construction, were inclined to be 
skeptical as to their practicability. It was objected that 



84 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when 
the silo was filled with green fodder; that they would 
shrink after having been left empty during the summer 
months, so that the silo would fall to pieces, or at least 
so that it could not again be made air-tight; and finally, 
that the silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding 
value thereby greatly lowered. In addition to this, it was 
claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as much 
as a first class ordinary all-wood silo of the same capacity, 
which would not have the objectionable features of the 
former. 

In spite of these objections the stave silo has, how- 
ever, gradually gained ground, until of late years it has 
quite generally been adopted in preference to other kinds 
of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central states. 
This being a fact, it follows that the objections previously 
made to the stave silos, cannot be valid, that the staves 
do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink so as to 
cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As re- 
gards the danger from freezing of the silage, the criticisms 
of the stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave 
silos will be likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of 
the Northern states or Canada; but, according to the testi- 
mony of farmers who have had experience with frozen 
silage, this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The 
freezing does not injure the feeding value of the silage, or 
its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is as 
good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish. 

Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous. 

The main reasons why stave silos have been preferred 
by the majority of farmers during late years are that they 
can be put up easily, quickly and cheaply, and the expense 
for a small silo of this kind is comparatively small. Many 
a farmer has built a stave silo who could not afford to build 
a high-priced silo, and others have preferred to build two 
small silos for one large one, or a small one in addition 
to an old, larger one that they may already have. Manu- 



THE STAVE SILO. 85 

factiiring firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of 
stave-silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos 
through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made 
a special business of the building of stave silos, and hav- 
ing had several years' experience as to the requirements 
and precautions to be observed in building such silos, these 
firms furnish silos complete with all necessary fixtures, 
that are greatly superior to any which a farmer would be 
apt to build according to more or less incomplete direc- 
tions. 

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufactur- 
ing firms will generally be more expensive than such a 
farmer can build himself, because they are built better. 
It does not pay to build a poor silo, however, except to 
bridge over an emergency. Poor, cheap silos are a con- 
stant source of annoyance, expense and trouble, whether 
built square, rectangular or round. The cheap silos de- 
scribed in other places of this book have not been given 
for the purpose of encouraging the building of such silos, 
but rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build 
a permanent good silo, he is not necessarily barred from 
the advantages of having silage for his stock, since a tem- 
porary silo may be built at a small cash outlay. 

We can therefore consistently recommend that parties 
intending to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers 
who have made silo construction a special business. These 
firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with complete 
directions for putting up the silos, and, if desired, also 
skilled help to superintend their building. Perhaps a 
large majority of the farmers of the country cannot, how- 
ever, patronize manufacturers of stave silos because the 
expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be pro- 
hibitory. For the convenience of such parties and others 
who may prefer to build their own stave silos, directions 
for their construction are given in the following: The 
specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, printed below, which 
are taken from Woll's Book on Silage, were furnished by 
Claude & Starck, Architects, Madison, Wisconsin. 



86 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Specifications for 100-ton Silo, 

MASONRY. 

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to 
a depth of six inches; excavate for foundation wall to a 
depth of 16 inches; in this trench build a wall 18 inches 
wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in rich lime 
mortar. Level off top and plaster inside, outside and on 
top with cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part sand. 
Fill inside area with four inches of good gravel, thoroughly 
tamped down; after the wood work is in place coat this 
with one inch of cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part 
clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished 
well to the center and bi ought up at least 2 inches all 
around inside and outside walls. 

CARPENTRY. 

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking 
joints, and made from clear, straight-grained cypress, 2x6 
inches, beveled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, 
mill-sized to the exact dimensions and dressed on all sides. 
There shall be three doors in the fifth, eighth and tenth 
spaces between the hoops, made by cutting out from staves 
28 inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the 
inside. (See Fig. 13.) The staves shall then be fastened 
together with two 2x4-inch battens cut on inside to an 
8-ft. radius and bolted to each stave with two i/i-inch 
diameter carriage bolts with round head sunk on inside 
and nut on outside. The staves between the doors shall 
be fastened together, top and bottom, with 34'ii^ch diam- 
eter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of staves 
shall be squared and toe-nailed together. 

Bottom Plates. — Bottom plates shall be made 'of 2x4- 
inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 
inches radius outside. They shall be bedded in cement 
mortar and the staves shall then be set on the foundation 
and well spiked to these plates. 



DOOR OF STAVE SILO. 



87 



Hoops. — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of 
%-inch diameter round iron with upset ends, threaded 
8 inches, with nut and w^asher at each end; as a support 
for the hoops a piece of 4x6 shall be substituted for 
a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in it and the 
ends of hoops passed through these holes and tightened 
against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The hoops shall be 
twelve in number starting at the bottom 6 inches apart 
and increasing in distance 6 inches between each hoop 




Fig. 13, Appearance of door in stave silo after being sazvcd 
out, and side viezv in place. The opening is largest on 
the inside of silo. {Clinton.) 



88 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is reached; from this point 
up this distance shall be preserved as near as possible to 
the top. 

Roof. — Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch 
clear siding lapping joints, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters, 2-feet 
centers 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch plates. These 
plates to be supported on two 4x4-inch pieces resting on 
top of hoops. Three lx4-inch collar beams shall be spiked 




Fig, 14, A cheap roof of a stave silo. (Clinton.) 

to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. See 
Fig. 11.) Fig. 14 shows another simple construction of 
roof on a stave silo. 



PAINTING. 

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be 
painted two coats of good mineral paint; the entire inside 
surface of the staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated 
with hot coal tar. 



MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 89 

Note. — Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked 
tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo examined 
and cracks tightly caulked. 

The method of construction specified in the preceding 
may of course be modified in many particulars, according 
to the conditions present in each case, cost of different 
kinds of lumber, maximum amount of money to be ex- 
pended on silo, etc. 

The following directions for the construction of stave 
silos are taken from two bulletins on this subject, published 
by the Cornell and Ottawa Experiment Stations. For a 
silo 20 feet in diameter, a circular trench 18 inches to two 
feet wide and with an outer diameter of 22 feet is dug 
about 2 feet deep, or below the frost line. The surface 
soil over the whole included area, and for 2 feet outside, is 
removed to a depth of 10 or 12 inches at the same time. 
The trench is then filled to the level of the interior with 
stone, well pounded down, the surface stone being broken 
quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of sand 
thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in and left 
for a few days. This is followed by a coat of good cement 
(1 part cement to 3 sand), care being taken when finished 
to have the surface level and smooth. 

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 15, which shows 
a cross-section of one method of construction. 

The posts (a, a, a, a) should be of 6x6 material and 
run the entire length of the silo. These should be first 
set up vertically and stayed securely in place. 

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2 by 
4 scantling in the positions shown in Fig. 15, as b, b, b, b. 
Boards nailed from these 2 by 4 scantling and to the 
6 by 6 posts will form a rigid framework, across which 
the planks for the scaffold platform may be laid. Be- 
fore the scaffolding is all in place the staves should be 
stood up within the inclosure; otherwise difficulty will be 
experienced in getting them into position. 

It is probable that no better material can be obtained 
for the staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is 



90 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



.^>i> 



.".^. 







I. -J. 



. -_, -I 






Fig, 15, Cross section of stave silo. The doited Hues 
slicii' Iiozc scaffolding may be put up. 

so expensive in the North, as to preclude its use in most 
cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock, white pine, and 
yellow pine, are usually the most available. At the pres- 
ent time hemlock is one of the cheapest satisfactory 
materials which can be purchased, and it is probably as 
good as any of the cheaper materials. It should be sound 
and free from loose knots. 

If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less, the 
staves should be made of either 2 by 4 material, unbeveled 
on the edges and neither tongued nor grooved, or of 
2 by 6 material beveled slightly on the edges to make the 
staves conform to the circular shape of the silo. If the 



STAVES FOR SETTING UP SILO. 



91 



silo is to have a diameter of more than 12 feet, the staves 
phould be of 2 by 6 material, and neither beveled nor 
tongued and grooved on the edges. The staves should be 
surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be pre- 
sented which will facilitate the settling of the silage. The 
first stave set up should be made plumb, and should be 
toe-nailed at the top to one of the posts originally set. 




Fig. IS, Shows Jiozc barrel stares may be used in setiiiig 
up a silo. They should be removed before the silo is filled. 

Immediately a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed 
at the top to the preceding stave set. It has been found 
that the work of setting up and preserving the circular 
outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel 
staves (see Fig. 16.) For a silo 12 feet in diameter the 
curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted; 
for a 16-foot silo the flour barrel stave is best, and for a 
silo 20 feet or more in diameter the stave of the cement 



92 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

barrel is best. If when the silo staves are put in place 
they are toe-nailed securely to the ones previously set; 
if they are fastened firmly to the permanent upright posts 
(Fig. 15, a, a, a, a) ; if the barrel staves are used as 
directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand 
until the hoops are put in place. However, if it becomes 
necessary for any reason to delay for any considerable 
time the putting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed 
across the top of the silo. 

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the 
full length desired, a joint or splice must be made. 

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be 
used. A part of these should be used their full length and 
part should be sawed through the middle, thus making 
staves of 20 and 10 feet length. In setting them up the 
ends which meet at the splice should be squared and toe- 
nailed securely together. They should alternate so that 
first a long stave is at the bottom then a short one. thus' 
breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base. 

For the hoops, %-inch round iron or steel rods are 
recommended, although cheaper substitutes have been 
found satisfactory. Each hoop should be in three sections 
for a silo 12 feet in diameter, in four sections for a silo 
16 feet in diameter. If the method of construction shown 
in Fig. 15 is followed, the hoops will need to be in four 
sections each, the ends being passed through the upright 
6x6 posts, and secured by heavy washers and nuts. The 
bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base of 
the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two 
feet from the first ; the third hoop two and one-half feet 
from the second, the distance between hoops being in- 
creased by one-half foot until they are three and one-half 
feet apart, which distance should be maintained except for 
the hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet 
apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before the 
silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must be tight 
enough to close up the space between the staves, thus 
preventing any foreign matter from getting into the craq^s 



IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. 93 

which would prevent the staves from closing up as they 
swell, and allow air to enter. To hold hoops and staves 
in place during the summer when the silo is empty, staples 
should be driven over the hoops into the staves. If a suf- 
ficient number of staples are used they will prevent the 
sagging or dropping down of the hoops, and they will 
hold the staves securely in place. 

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few 
days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite 
intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If during 
the summer when the silo is empty and the staves thor- 
oughly dry the hoops are tightened so that the staves 
are drawn closely together when the silo is filled and the 
wood absorbs moisture and begins to swell, the hoops 
must be eased somewhat to allow for the expansion. 

The doors, 2 feet wide by 2^^ feet high, should be 
located where convenience in feeding dictates. The lower 
door should be between the second and third hoops at 
the bottom, and other doors will usually be needed in every 
second space between there and the top, except that no 
door will be needed in the top space, as the silage when 
settled will be sufficiently low to enable it to be taken out 
at the door in the space below. Plans should be made 
for the doors at the time the staves are set. When the 
place is reached where it is desired to have the doors; a 
saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points 
where the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The 
saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed out 
on a bevel, making the opening larger on the inside of the 
silo. (See Fig. 13). This will enable the door to be re- 
moved and put in place only from the inside, and when set 
in place and pressed down with silage the harder the pres- 
sure the tighter will the door fit. After the silo is set up 
and the hoops have been put on and tightened the cutting 
out of the doors may be completed. Before doing this, 
cleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal to the 
width of the door, should be made which will conform to 
the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should 



D4 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of 
where the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 13.) After the 
bolting, the door may be sawed out, and it is then ready 
for use. When set in place at time of filling the silo a 
piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and bottom will 
fill the opening made by the saw and prevent the entrance 
of any air around the door. 

Another Door for Stave Silo. 

Silage being heavy to handle, and pitch up, has made 
continuous doors a popular feature of a few factory-built 
silos, as it is much easier to get the silage out of the silo 
for feeding. The illustration. Fig. 17, shows a method of 
making a door in homemade silos which is continuous with 
the exception of a narrow brace piece extending across 
the opening, under each hoop, to give rigidity to the struc- 
ture. These pieces should be securely toe-nailed at each 
end to the staves. The jamb pieces, e, e, should be 2 
inches thick, beveled off on the side away from the door, 
securely spiked to the inside of the stave, as shown, so as 
to leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should be taken 
to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart 
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards, 
being sawed the exact length, will fit alike and properly 
all the way up, and if care be taken in this regard it will 
not be necessary to replace them in the same order at 
each successive filling of the silo. The door boards should 
be matched, two inches thick the same as the staves, and 
if surfaced and well seasoned there need be no fear of the 
silage spoiling around such a door. A strip of acid and 
water-proof paper may be placed in the rabbet, between 
the ends of the door boards and the stave, as an extra 
precaution, but if the carpenter work is well done it is not 
absolutely necessary. 

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave silo, 
and, if not more than two feet wide, the fact that the door 
section is straight instead of curved will make no differ- 
ence. 



SECTION OF SILO DOOH. 



9S 



^^^£ 




StL\\^T( ^ S\Vo ^'Otil^ 





Fig. 17. ^> (^> Staves, b, h, Door Boards, c, Brace bYj. 
by 6, set in. d, d. Hoops, e, e, Jamb Pieces. 



96 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



If the silo is built outside of the barn some sort of a 
roof is desirable. This should be sufficiently wide to pro- 
tect the walls of the silo as thoroughly as possible. A 
very satisfactory r-oof is shown in Fig. 14. Two other con- 
structions of a cheap roof for a stave silo are shown in 
Figs. 18 and 19. The latter was built at the Indiana Ex- 
periment Station at a total cost of $10.50, viz., lumber 
$4.00, tin put on and painted $6.00 and hardware 50 cents. 
Two 2x6 pieces (AA) were placed on edge and toe-nailed 
to the top of the staves they rested on; the projection is 
for supijorting the carrier at filling time. They are tied 
together by the short pieces E. The roof is in three 
sections, G, H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame 
A, A, and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, 




Fig, 18, A cheap roof for stave silos. 



CHECK ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 



97 



to allow filling to the top. The narrow middle section is 
light enough to lift off on either side, and leaves the open- 
ing for the carrier to deliver into. 

On the framework B, B, and C, C, cheap sheeting 
boards are nailed. This is then covered with tin, soldered 




Fig.l9. A CHEAP ROOF OF STAVE SILO. 

A, B, and E, 2x6 in.; C, 2x4 in.; D, E, Enlarged Outside 
End; F, Hinges; G, H, I, Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2 
in. {Van Norman.) 

joints and painted. The sections should be fastened down 
by means of staples and hooks, or other device; the hooks 
are used on this one. On the inner edge of G and H, 
2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. Close to these are placed 
similar strips, J, to which the cross-boards are nailed, 
7 



98 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

forming the section I of the roof. The tin on the section 
I should come over to the side of J. On the other sec- 
tions it should run up on the side of K, making a water- 
tight joint. 

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 3 inches, 
being the difference in height of A and C. C is notched 
one inch at the outer end. (Van Norman.) 

Cheap Stave Silos. 

A foundation, bottom, and roofless stave silo was de- 
scribed recently in Hoard's Dairyman, which may prove 
of interest and value to some readers. It was put up on 
a leased farm, with the expectation of removing it on the 
termination of the lease. It has the sky for a roof, the 
ground for a bottom, and no foundation but a 2x6 spruce 
scantling to secure a level base for the wall, while pro- 
tecting them from rotting on the ground. The silo has 
a diameter of 24 feet, and is as high as could be built from 
2x4 scantling without splicing them. The 2x4 spruce 
scantlings were set 18 inches apart from center to center, 
upon a 2x6 sill, directly upon the ground. It was sheeted 
on the inside with two thicknesses of i/^x6 spruce, with 
tar paper between. On the outside, at the bottom, half 
way up, and at the top, were two, three, and two bands of 
1x6 common fencing, respectively, and no other boarding. 
The silo has a capacity of 250 tons, and was built at a 
cost of $174.21. "We never had better silage than we are 
now feeding out of this silo, though we did have to shovel 
nearly a foot off of it a few days ago, when the silo was 
opened." 

A Modification of the Stave Silo, 

Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up, 
but unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they may 
be easily blown into a shapeless mass in case of a heavy 
gale. The modification of the stave silo described in the 
following has the advantage of being more rigid and sub- 



MODIFICATION OF STAVE SILO. 99 

stantial; it has been put up in a number of places in the 
east, and has apparently given good satisfaction for sev- 
eral years at least. In building this silo some good, tough 
oak plank two inches thick and of any convenient length 
are procured. Rock elm will do, although not as good as 
oak. The planks are sawed into strips half an inch thick. 
The foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and a little 
larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake 
Is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just long 
enough to act as a guide in setting scantling when erecting 
sides. For sides l%x4-inch hemlock of any desired length 
is used. These are set up on the circumference of the 
silo, perpendicular to the bottom, 3 feet and 7 feet up nail 
on the outside one of the half-inch strips mentioned be- 
fore, being sure to keep the circle regular. This will keep 
upright pieces in place until the circle is completed. On 
each hoop so started other half-inch pieces are nailed, 
lapping them in different places until each hoop is three 
Inches thick. Other hoops are now put on in the same 
manner, placing them one foot apart at bottom, up to the 
three-foot hoop 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot 
hoop, then increasing the distance between each hoop two 
inches, until they are 30 inches apart, at which distance 
they should be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should 
be done on the hoop. When this is done, a silo will be 
made of 11/^x4 inch, thoroughly hooped with wooden hoops 
2x3 inches. 

I'he inside may be covered with the best quality of 
felt, well tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat of 
thick coal tar is spread; over this another thickness of 
felt is put while the tar coating is still green. The silo is 
lined with ^-inch Georgia pine ceiling, nailing thoroughly, 
and the lining coated with two coats of coal tar, putting 
on the first one quite thin, but using all the wood will take 
in, and for a second coat tar as thick as can be spread. 
Give plenty of time to dry before filling. 

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with ver- 
tical boarding, or it may have strips nailed on hoops and 



100 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

be boarded with novelty siding. The latter method will 
make a stronger and better looking silo. If the hoops are 
well nailed to the staves when being made, we shall have 
a silo in which it is impossible for the staves to shrink 
or get loose. (Woodward.) 

Peer, in his book "Soiling, Soiling Crops and Ensilage," 
reports that a New York canning factory who has for 
years siloed their pea vines, corn husks and cobs, and win- 
tered sheep thereon, put the refuse through a cutting box 
Into a rough plank silo about thirty feet in diameter. "'The 
planks were rough, just as they came from the saw mill, 
set on end, and hooped with half-inch iron. No roof was 
put on, and when the silage settled the staves were taken 
down, the silage stood, and the whole mass kept in per- 
fect form. The following year the staves (2x6 inch 
planks) are set up again. As to the silage spoiling, there 
Is six or eight inches on the side that rots, and is thrown 
into the manure heap. As to freezing, they experienced 
no inconvenience from that. If the top freezes a little, 
it is mixed with the unfrozen, fermentation sets up, and 
the frozen part is thawed out by its own combustion. 

Protection against freezing. If the silo is built out- 
doors in any of the Northern states, it is necessary to pro- 
vide some special means to keep the silage from freezing 
in case this is considered a very objectionable feature. 
The silo may be inclosed by a wide jacket of rough boards 
nailed to four uprights, leaving the section of the silo 
where the doors are easy of access; the space between the 
silo and outside jacket is filled with straw in the fall; this 
may be taken out and used for bedding in the spring, thus 
allowing the staves to be thoroughly dried out during the 
summer, and preventing the silo from rotting. 

Number of staves required for stave silos. — The follow- 
ing table will be found useful in calculating the number of 
staves required for silos of different diameters, and feed- 
ing areas which these will give: 



TABLE OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES. 101 



CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 



Diameter, 
Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 
Square 
Feet. 


Diameter, 
Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 

Square 

Feet. 


8 


25.1 


50.3 


21 


66.0 


346.4 


9 


28.3 


63.6 


22 


69.1 


380.1 


10 


31.4 


78.5 


23 


72.3 


415.5 


11 


34.6 


95.0 


24 


75.4 


452.4 


12 


37.7 


113.1 


25 


78.5 


490.9 


13 


40.8 


132.7 


26 


81.7 


530.9 


14 


44.0 


153.9 


27 


84.8 


572.6 


15 


47.1 


179.7 


28 


88.0 


615.8 


16 


50.3 


201.1 


29 


91.1 


660.5 


17 


53.4 


227.0 


30 


94.2 


706.9 


18 


56.5 


254.5 


31 


97.4 


754.8 


10 


59.7 


283.5 


32 


100.5 


804.2 


20 


62.8 


314.2 









To find the circHmference of a circle, multiply the 
diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the 
diameter by 0.7854. 

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply the 
aiea of the base (floor) by the height. 

Example. — A silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet high 
is wanted; how many staves 2x6 inches will be needed, 
and what will be the feeding area in the silo and its 
capacity? 

The circumference of a circle 16 feet diameter is 50.3 
feet; there will therefore be required '50.3-^l^=:101 staves, 
2x6 inches, 26 feet high, or if staves of this height cannot 
be obtained, 135 staves 20 feet long, or 50 each of 12 and 
14 feet long staves. The feeding area will be 16xl6X 
0.7854=201.1 square feet, and the cubical content of the 
silo, 201.1x26=5228.6 cubic feet. Estimating the weight 
of a cubic foot of corn silage at 40 pounds, 5228.6 cubic 
feet of silage would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about 100 
tons, which is the approximate capacity of a round silo 
of the dimensions given. 



102 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Connecting Round Silos with Barn. — The location of 
the silo with reference to other farm buildings has already 
been discussed. The silo must be easy to get at from the 
stable, and the silage, if possible, handled only once in 
being placed before the stock. A round silo is most con- 
veniently built just outside of the barn and connected with 
this by means of covered passage way. The method of 
joining silos to barns is illustrated in numerous pictures 
of silos given in this book. (See Fig. 20.) 

Other Forms of Round Silos, 

The various types of round, wooden silos have been 
described at some length in the preceding, because per- 
haps ninety per cent, of farmers who expect to build a 
silo will build one of this kind, either one of the more 
substantial and expensive original or modified Wisconsin 
silos, or a stave silo. In some cases it seems more de- 
sirable to build a round silo of other material than wood, 
viz., of either stone or brick. The general principles that 
must be observed in constructing silos of these materials 
are similar to those underlying the proper construction of 
wooden silos. In order to strengthen the wall of the silo, 
it is recommended to bed in the wall between the doors % 
inch iron rods, bent to the curve of the silo circle, and 
about 12 feet long. The two ends should be turned short 
at right angles, so as to anchor better in the mortar. In 
deep stone silos, which rise more than 18 feet above the 
surface of the ground, it will be safest to strengthen the 
wall between the two lower doors with iron tie rods, and, 
if such a silo is built of boulders, it will be well to use 
rods enough to have a complete line or hoop around the 
silo about two feet above the ground, as represented in 
Fig. 21. 

Too great care cannot be taken in making the part of 
the wall below and near the ground solid, and especially 
Its outer face, so that it will be strong where the greatest 
strain will come. It is best also to dig the pit for the silo 
large enough so as to have plenty of room outside of the 



ILLUSTRATION. 



103 




104 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



finished wall to permit the earth filled hi behind to be 
very thoroughly tamped, so as to act as a strong backing 
for the wall. This is urged because a large per cent, of 
the stone foundations of wood silos have cracked more or 
less from one cause or another, and these cracks lead to 
the spoiling of silage. 




Fig, 21, Slwzciug method of bedding iron rods in sttnic, 
brick, or concrete zvalls, to increase the strength. 



Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the strong- 
est silo wall, because they bond much better than boulders 
do, and when built of limestone they will not need to be 
reinforced much with iron rods. It will be best even in 
this case, however, to use the iron tie rods between the 
lower two doors. (King.) 



BRICK SILOS. lefi 

Brick Silos. — In constructing a brick silo it will be well 
to guard the following points; Make the foundation of 
stone if practicable, and let the first course of brick com© 
flush on the inside with the stone work. Bed a five-eighths 
inch iron hoop in the stone work in the upper part before 
laying the brick, in order to keep the pressure of brick 
from spreading the wall before the mortar becomes set and 
hard. Make a two-inch air space in the walls up to within 
one-third of the top. This will make a 14-inch wall of 
three courses of brick. If, however, the silo is to be over 
24 feet inside diameter, then a four-brick wall is really nec- 
essary one-third the way up, then the next third of three 
bricks and the last third of two bricks. The air space 
.should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron tie rods 
should also be laid around in the wall between the doors, 
as recommended in the stone work. It is also important 
that the brick should be wet when laid, otherwise the 
mortar in which they are laid will be dried out too rapidly. 
The walls should be plastered over very smoothly with a 
coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick, 
and then every two or three years this should be well 
white-washed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected 
from the effects of acid in the silage. King recommends 
that the floor jambs be made of 3x6's or 3x8's, rabbetted 
two inches deep to receive the door on the inside. The 
center of the jambs outside should be grooved and a 
tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch out- 
ward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure a 
thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The 
doors may be made of two layers of matched flooring with 
tarred paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb, 
B© as to give a perfect smooth face next to the silage. 

Stone Silos. — The stone should have a wall about two 
feet thick below the surface of the ground, and this may 
be laid in the cheaper grades of cement. Above the sur- 
face a good grade of Portland cement should be used. A 
thickness of wall of 18 inches at the surface of the 
ground is desirable, but this may be gradually reduced 



106 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

to 12 inches at the top, keeping the inner surface of the 
silo perpendicular. It is important to have five-eighths inch 
iron rods, with angles on the ends, laid in tjie wall at 
Intervals between each door, to keep the walls from crack- 
ing or spreading before the mortar or cement is thoroughly 
set. These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the 
curve of the wall, and the angled ends should lap by each 
other for three or four inches. 

It will be well to place silos a distance below the sur- 
face. This should not be deep enough on level land, how- 
ever, to require great exertion to get out the silage. Under 
such circumstances four feet is deep enough. (Plumb.) 

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, 
and cement silos are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage, 
and in Bulletin No. 83 of Wisconsin Experiment Station, 
by Prof. King as well as in numerous other pamphlets, 
and we shall not take up further space here with the 
discussion thereof. The same holds true with all other 
forms of silo construction than those already explained, 
except the one kind, where silos are built in a bay of the 
barn. In order to use the space economically, these silos 
are built in a rectangular form. 

Silos in the Barn, 

A large number of silos have been built in the barn, 
especially in the early days of silo construction. Where 
the necessary depth can be obtained and where the room 
can be spared, such silos can be built very easily and at a 
less cost than a separate structure, since lighter materials 
in construction may be used in this case, and no roof will 
be required for the silo. Silos built in this manner have 
generally the advantage of being near at hand. Since 
feeding time comes twice a day, at least, throughout the 
winter and spring, a few steps saved in hauling the silage 
mean a good deal in the aggregate. Many farmers first 
made silos of this kind, and, later on, when familiar with 
the silage and siloing process, built additional separate 
structures. 



A RECTANGULAR SILO. 



107 



A very cheap rectangular silo may be constructed by 
erecting strong 3x10 studding around a bay or part of a 
bay, and lining with one ply good matched lumber one- 
inch thick. Such a silo has been in use at the Ottawa) 
Station for eight years, and has given good results. 

The main objection to rectangular or square silos is 
that it is very difficult to make the corners perfectly tight, 
so that air will not enter at these points and cause more 
or less of the silage to spoil here. Even if carefully built, 
the lateral pressure in a silo filled with green fodder is 
often great enough to cause the boards to spring and thus 
let air in, unless special precautions have been taken to 




Fig, 23, Corner of rectangular silo. (Wheeler.) 

prevent it. One way of avoiding this difficulty is to par- 
tially round off the corners, by placing a square timber, 
split diagonally, in each of the corners. Another plan 
is to bevel the edge of a ten-inch plank and nail it in the 
corners, filling in behind with dry dirt or sand. Sawdust 
has been recommended, but should not be used, as it will 
draw moisture and cause the plank and silo lining to 
decay. The space back of the plank may also be left 
empty. 

The arrangement for making the corners of a square 
or rectangular silo air-tight shown in Fig. 23 was published 
by the Geneva Experiment Station. The corners are 
boarded up, as shown in the figure, a sheeting of paper 



108 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



going between the two courses of boards. The partitions 
at the corners can be put across after the first course of 
boards, instead of after the lining is in place, as shown in 
the illustration. 

The silos of the form mentioned may be strengthened 
at the corners by the arrangement recommended by Prof. 
Spillman and shown in Fig. 24. Half-inch bolts are used 



^ 



I 



:^) 



si 



J 



a' 



Fig, 24, Cross section of studding at the corner of a rec- 
tangular silo. (Spillman.) 

to hold the 2x4 and 2x6 together. The bolts are not more 
than eighteen inches apart from the bottom up to about 
the middle of the studding. Above the middle they may 
be two feet apart; they may be reinforced by 30d. nails. 



Octagonal Silos. 

A number of octagonal silos hav© been built in recent 
years, and find favor with their owners in most instances. 
If properly put up and care taken to fasten the girts 
securely at the corners with plenty of spikes, the octag- 
onal silo is greatly superior to the square type, and has 
nearly every advantage of the round silo, and can readily 



OCTAGONAL SILO. 



109 



be constructed by anyone handy with tools with the assist- 
ance of the ordinary farm help. 

The foundation should be of stone or brick as de- 
scribed for various other forms of silos, and should be 
laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided upon. 
Brief details are here given for an octagonal silo of about 
the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet in diameter and 
of equal height. 

If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are 
in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the 
horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be much 
stronger and better able to withstand the lateral pressure 
that the sides of a square silo of equal capacity. Details 
of construction are shown in the drawings, Figs. 25 and 26. 
The girts should be 3x8 in. and spiked at the corners 




Fig, 25, Perspective, showing construction of frame, and 
double lining with paper between. The door is made of 
tivo thicknesses with paper between, as shown. 



110 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

with 6 inch spikes, up to nearly one-half of the height of 
the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the way, fastened with 20 
penny spikes. The girts should be 16 inches apart at the 
bottom for one-third of the height of the silo. They may 
be 18 inches apart the second third of the distance, and 
above that the distance between them can be increased 
till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double row 
may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be 
used. Care should be taken to have the girts securely 
spiked at the corners, so that the joints will not give. 
The horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the 
round silo and must be strong. Not less than six or eight 
spikes should be used at each splice. One of the causes 
of failure in home-made silos of every kind is that the 
ordinary carpenter, who has probably never built a silo be- 
fore, has but a limited idea of the pressure on the sides 
of a silo 30 or more feet deep, and does not realize thei 
disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo. 

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular 
is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the 
wall securely, by means of bolts set in the wall, and then 
erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary post 
or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position so that 
it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts then laid and 
spiked in position, one above the other. 

The lining is, of course, ptit on up and down and 
should be matched and of good thickness, say I14 or IV^ 
if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need not be so 
thick, %-inch flooring, and the outer layer not necessarily 
matched. The corners should be fitted as nicely as possi- 
ble, and it is a good plan to block out the corners, as 
shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and grooves 
can be properly adjusted to each other. 

John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer, 
recommends, where one thickness of matched lumber is 
used in the above manner, that the lining be thoroughly 
coated on the outside with heavy application of coal tar, 
or other similar substance, so as to prevent the air pene- 



METHOD OF LAYING AND BOLTING SILL. Ill 

trating the pores of the lumber, and causing the silage to 
dry on to the inner surface. 

Any style of door can he used, but an effective con- 
tinuous door is shown in the illustration. If any of the 
girts be cut out to make the door space larger, the re- 
maining ones should be correspondingly reinforced. 

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple mat- 
ter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, although 




Fig, 26, Showing method of laying sill and bolting saute 
to foundation for an octagonal silo. 

a trap door may be used in case the filling be done with 
a blower. Any style of siding may be used. 

Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory, 
have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in 
addition will be a much more stable structure, requiring 
no tightening of the hoops from time to time. 

Bills of materials for a silo built to 21-foot circle and 
30 feet high are given below. The cost will, of course, 
vary with the locality. 



112 



HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 



Bills of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x30 feet outside 
measurement: 

Foundation 10 perches 

Girts 110 feet 3x8 ) 8 or 16 foot 

900 feet 2x8 (" lengths. 

Rafters 230 feet 2x4x14 feet 

Siding 2500 feet 

Lining 2800 feet li^ inch thick, matched 

Dormer Window 

Nails and spikes 300 lbs. 

Shingles 4 M 

Paint 6 gallons 

Cost of Different Kinds of Silos. 

The cost of a silo will depend on local conditions as 
to price of labor and materials; how much labor has to 
be paid for; the size of the silo, etc. The comparative 
data for the cost of two round silos, 13 and 25 feet in 
diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof. King, as 
shown in the following table: 



KINDS OF SILO. 


13 FEET INSIDE 
DIAMETER. 


25 FEET INSIDE 
DIAMETER. 


VVithovit 
roof. 


With 
roof. 


Without 
roof. 


With 
roof. 


Stone Silo 


$151 
243 

142 
131 
133 

16S 
128 
127 
101 


$175 
273 

239 
190 
185 

1S5 
222 
183 
144 


$264 
4.37 

310 
239 
244 

308 
235 

13; 

195 


.?32S 


Brick Silo 


494 


Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches 
thick 


442 


Brick-lined, 2 inches thick, . . 
Lathed and plastered silo. . . . 
Wood Silo with galvanized 
Iron 


369 
363 

432 


Wood Silo with paper 

Stave Silo 


358 
289 


Cheapest wood Silo 


240 







During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inquiries 
in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds (not only 
circular ones) built by farmers in different states in the 



COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 113 

Union. The results of this inquiry are summarized 
briefly below. 

The cheapest silos are those built in bays of barns, 
as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are 
here already at hand. Number of silos included, fourteen; 
average capacity, 140 tons; average cost of silos, $92, or 
65 cents per ton capacity. 

Next comes the square or rectangular wooden silos. 
Number of silos included, twenty-five; average capacity, 
194 tons; average cost of silos. $285, or $1.46 per ton 
capacity. 

The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones 
in point of cost. Only seven silos were included, all but 
one of which were made of wood. Average capacity, 237 
tons; average cost, $368, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The 
data for the six round wooden silos are as follows: 
Average capacity, 228 tons; average cost, $340, or $1.52 
per ton capacity. The one round cement silo cost $500, 
and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diameter, 30 
feet; depth, 21 feet); cost per ton capacity, $1.67. 

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in 
first cost, as is shown by the data obtained. Number of 
silos included, nine; average capacity, 288 tons; average 
cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity. 

The great difference in the cost of different silos of 
the same kind is apparent without much reflection. The 
range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square wooden 
silos included in the preceding summary was from 70 cents 
to $3.60. The former figures were obtained with a 144-ton 
silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter with a 140-ton silo, built 
as follows: Dimensions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet stud- 
dings, set 12 inches apart; two thicknesses of dimension 
boards inside, with paper between, sheeting outside with 
paper nailed on studding; cement floor. Particulars are 
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo be- 
yond its dimensions. 

It may be in order to state, in comparing the average 
data for the cost of the different silo types, that the round 
8 



114 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

silos were uniformly built better than the rectangular 
wooden silos included, and according to modern require- 
ments, while many of the latter were old and of compara- 
tively cheap construction, so that the figures cannot be 
taken to represent the relative value of rectangular and 
round silos built equally well. 

A good many figures entering into the preceding sum- 
maries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put 
on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the cost 
of work done by the farmers themselves was not figured 
in with other expenses. As most farmers would do some 
of the work themselves, the figures given may, however, 
be taken to represent the cash outlay in building silos. 
In a general way, it may be said that a silo can be built 
in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton 
capacity; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden 
silo for about $1.50, and a stone or cement silo for about 
$2 per ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations 
according to local prices for labor and materials. 

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following com- 
parative figures as to cost of silos: Round stave silos, 
75 cents per ton capacity; round wooden silos, $1.25 and 
cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity. 

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the 
kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, 
as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that stave 
silos can as a rule be built cheaper than other kinds of 
silos, both from the fact that less material is used in 
their construction, and because the labor bill is smaller. 
One of the first stave silos described, built in Ontario, 
Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons. Other and better 
built stave silos have been put up for $100 for a 100-ton 
silo, and this may be considered an average price for 
such a silo, made of white pine, hemlock or any lumber 
that is cheapest in the particular locality where the silo 
Is to be built. If built of Southern cypress, and complete 
with conical roof and doors, the price of stave silos will 
In the North come to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small 



ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS. 115 

silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper 
than this average figure. 

Estimating Material and Cost of Silos. 

Several writers on silo construction have published 
bills of materials used in the construction of silos of 
moderate sizes of the following three types: Wisconsin 
Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo. 
Farmers CQntemplating building a silo, can use these 
estimates for figuring out the approximate cost of silos 
of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost of 
materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos 
built in the open, on level land. On hillsides deeper walls 
may be made to advantage, and where the silo is located 
within a building no roof will be needed. Consequently 
various factors may alter the applications of these esti- 
mates, which are only offered as suggestive, with the 
hope they may prove helpful. The first three estimates 
of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while the 
others have been furnished by Professors King and 
Withycombe. 

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin 
Improved Silos. 

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. 

Brick — 3375 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long. 

Flooring for doors — 32 feet, 4 matched. 

Sheeting — 3000 feet, i/^ inch, resawed from 2x6 — 16 foot 
plank sawed 3 times, dressed one side to uniform thick- 
ness for inside lining of two layers. 

Lining — 1500 feet of same for outside. 

Tar building paper — 200 yards, water and acid-proof. 

Nails— 200 lbs. 8-penny; 200 lbs. 10-penny. 

Spikes— 20 lbs. 

Rafters — 22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof. 



116 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

Sheeting for roof — 350 feet of 16 foot boards. 
Shingles— 3000. 
Shingle nails — 12 lbs. 

Dormer window for filling through. Paint — 7 gallons, 
providing two coats. 

Cement — 2 barrels, for cementing bottom. 

Estimate of Materials for a Modified 
Wisconsin Silo. 

Same capacity as preceding. 

Brick — 350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 ft. long. 

Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 14 ft. long. 

Sheeting— 3000 ft. i^ in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank 
sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for in- 
side lining of two layers. 

Tar building paper — 200 yards water and acid-proof. 

Nails — 1'50 lbs. 8 penny. 

Spikes— 12 lbs. 

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided 
for in this construction. 

Estimate of Materials for a Stave Silo, 

Size 12x28 ft., capacity, 60 tons. 
Bricks — 1800 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 2 ft. deep. 
Staves — 77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides. 
Staves — 77 2x6, 12 ft., dressed 4 sides. 
Rods — 10, 191/^ ft. long i/^ in. iron, with % threaded 
ends and nuts. 

Staples — 2 gross, i/^x2 in. 

Iron tighteners — 20 holding ends of hoops. 

Rafters — 2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center. 

Rafters — 2 2x6 pieces, 13 ft. long, for roof next center. 

Side rafters — 48 ft. 2x4 pieces. 

Roof sheeting — 170 ft. common. 

Tin sheeting— 196 ft. 

Cement for floor — 2 bbls. 



ESTIMATE OP MATERIALS. 117 

Estimate of Materials for a Wisconsin 
Improved Silo, 

Size 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity 200 
tons. 

Stone foundation — 7.5 perch. 

Studs— 2x4, 14 and 16 ft, 1,491 ft. 

Rafters— 2x4, 12 ft., 208 ft. 

Roof boards — Fencing, 500 feet. 

Shingles— 6 M. 

Siding— Rabbeted, 2,660 ft. 

Lining — Fencing, ripped, 2,800 ft. 

Tarred paper — 740 lbs. 

Coal tar— 1 bbl. 

Hardware— $6.00. 

Painting (60 cents per square) $13.20. 

Cementing bottom — $5.00. 

Carpenter labor — (at $3 per M and board) $33.17. 

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is an 
outside, wholly independent structure, except connected 
with the barn in the manner shown in Fig. 20, with en- 
trance and feeding chute toward the barn. 

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo, 

12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity, 49 tons. 

1 2-3 yards of rock gravel. 

4 barrels of sand. 

1 barrel of cement. 

2260 ft. tongued and grooved staves. 

72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames. 

358 ft. % in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight 
465 lbs. 

9 lugs. 

54 nuts. 

Preservative ($1.50). 

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof 
and painting are to be added to the preceding list. 

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave 



118 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the 
latest practice indicates that, if properly done, it is a 
decided advantage to have the staves matched, also 
slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will not 
be so liable to go to pieces when empty. This is the 
chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous cases 
are on record where stave silos standing in exposed places 
have blown over when empty. It is recommended, there- 
fore, that stave silos be attached to the barn by means 
of a feeding chute, and in the case of high or exposed 
silos it is well to make use of guy rods or wires in addi- 
tion. Indeed, some manufacturers of stave silos now rec- 
ommend these on some of their silos, and make provis- 
ions for them. 

Preservation of Silo. 

A silo building will not remain sound for many years 
unless special precautions are taken to preserve it. This 
holds good of all kinds of silos, but more especially of 
wooden ones, since cement coating in a stone silo, even 
If only fairly well made, will better resist the action of 
the silage juices than the wood-work will be able to keep 
sound in the presence of moisture, high temperature, and 
an abundance of bacterial life. 

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some 
material which will render the wood impervious to water, 
and preserve it from decay. A great variety of prepara- 
tions have been recommended and used for this purpose. 
Coal tar has been applied by a large number of farmers, 
and has been found effective and durable. It may be put 
on either hot, alone or mixed with resin, or dissolved in 
gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some of the oil con- 
tained in the tar must previously be burnt off. The tar 
is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited 
and then thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil 
to flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when 
it will string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, 
from a stick which has been thrust into the blazing kettle 



PRESERVATION OF SILOS. 119 

and afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is tlien 
put out by placing a tight cover over the kettle. The 
kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining has 
been gone over. A mop or a small whisk broom cut short, 
so it is stiff, may serve for putting on the tar. 

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many 
with good success. About half a gallon of coal tar and 
two-thirds of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a time, 
stirring it while it is being put on. Since gasoline is 
highly inflammable, care must be taken not to have any 
fire around when this mixture is applied. Asbestos paint 
has also been recommended for the preservation of silo 
walls, and would seem to be well adapted for this purpose. 

Many silos are preserved by application of a mixture 
of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, or one 
part of the former to two of the latter. This mixture, 
applied every other year, before filling time, seems to pre- 
serve the lining perfectly. In building round silos, it is 
recommended to paint the boards with hot coal tar, and 
placing the painted sides face to face. 

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up spec- 
ial preparations for preserving the silos, which they send 
out with the staves. These are generally simple com- 
pounds similar to those given in the preceding, and are 
sold to customers at practically cost price. 

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by 
one or the other of these methods will only keep sound and 
free from decay if the silos are built so as to insure 
good ventilation. Preservatives will not save a non-venti- 
lated silo structure from decay. 

Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have 
seen by applying a whitewash of pure cement as often as 
found necessary, which may be every two or three years. 
The same applies to stone and cement silos. The degree 
of moisture and acidity in the silage corn will doubtless 
determine how often the silo walls have to be gone over 
with a cement wash; a very acid silage, made from im- 
mature corn will be likely to soften the cement coating 



120 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 

sooner than so-called sweet silage made from nearly 
mature corn. 

A considerable number of wood silos are in use that 
were not treated on the inside with any preservative or 
paint and have stood very well. Indeed, some writers 
maintain that if the silo is well protected on the outside, 
a stave silo receives little if any benefit from inside 
coatings. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 

In the preceding chapter we have attempted to deal 
with wood, briclv and stone in silo construction. 

Of late years, however, a big demand has sprung up 
for a more substantial structure. This is evidenced by 
the large number of factory and other buildings spring- 
ing up in all parts of the country made of concrete and 
cement blocks. This construction is getting to be very 
popular in so far as silos are concerned; especially is this 
true where permanency is desired, such as on established 
stock farms, etc. 

Three forms of concrete silos are in successful use. 
They are known as the Monolithic Concrete Silos, both 
solid and hollow wall, and the Concrete Block Silos. In 
the extreme north, the hollow wall type should be chosen 
to prevent freezing; otherwise, the cost, fixed largely by 
local conditions, should be the deciding feature. 

In the past the high first cost of these forms of con- 
struction has been the chief factor against their more ex- 
tensive use, but this has been due to our insufficient knowl- 
edge as to the best and most economical methods in 
handling material. The price of lumber has been steadily 
rising, while that of good Portland Cement has been de- 
creasing, and good qualities can now be obtained at a fair 
price; it seems, therefore, to be generally conceded that 
the concrete or cement block silo will be the silo of the 
future. 

The chief advantages claimed for the concrete silos, 
when properly built, are that they are absolutely air-tight 
and water-tight, hence will neither shrink in hot, dry 
weather nor swell up in damp weather; that they main- 
tain a more even temperature because concrete is a great 

121 



122 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 

non-conductor of heat and cold; that the silage acids that 
affect wood and metal have no effect on concrete; that 
they are vermin proof; that they will last practically for- 
ever and need no repairs, and that they are fire proof. 

The general concensus of opinion among those who 
have made a study of the matter seems to be well voiced 
in Bulletin No. 102 of the Agricultural Experiment Station 
of the University of Illinois when it says: ''From what we 
know now the round wood silo plastered with cement 
seems to be the best construction, but the indications are 
that when we learn to handle concrete to the best ad- 
vantage this will be the material for building silos." 

The United States Government has, in every state in 
the Union, established Agricultural Experiment Stations 
for the purpose of giving the American farmer and Ameri- 
can Agriculture in general the benefits of the best and 
most improved methods. Several of these stations have 
investigated the subject of silo construction and we feel 
that we cannot do better than quote some of their results. 
The station at the University of Wisconsin very clearly 
introduces the situation in their Bulletin No. 125 as fol- 
lows: 

"Cement is being more and more widely used in all 
kinds of construction work. It is not strange, therefore, 
that it is being tried in silo construction. Concrete has 
been used for a long time in silo foundations, but it is 
now being used in the superstructure also. As yet, how- 
ever no careful work has been done to determine what 
is the best method to follow in construction of silos in 
concrete. Concrete in itself is very strong, much stronger 
than ordinary brick or stone masonry, that is, providing 
good cement is used and the concrete properly made. 

"Reinforced concrete, or concrete steel, is very much 
stronger than ordinary concrete. Reinforced concrete is 
concrete in which steel rods or wires are imbedded in 
such a way as to take the strain. By placing wires or 
rods in the concrete it is possible to make the walls or 
beams much thinner or lighter than would otherwise be 



ILLUSTRATION. 



123 



possible and obtain the required strength. By reinforcing 
the concrete with steel much cement is saved. In Europe, 
and particularly in France, reinforced concrete has been 
very extensively used and used with much boldness. A 
simple instance will illustrate: 

"A large elevator and mill in France was constructed 
wholly of reinforced concrete, walls, floors, beams, and 
posts. The mill is 112 feet high from foundation to roof. 
The roof is used as a reservoir holding 100 tons of water. 
The capacity of the elevator is 7,000 tons. The walls are 
only 12 inches thick at the foot and 4 inches at the top. 







Fig. 28. Large cement silo and hams at Posto Zootechnico Central (Ex- 
periment Station) at Sao Paulo, Brazil, South America. Silo being filled 
with No. 17 Ohio Blower Machine. 



124 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 

"To obtain best results in concrete it is necessary first 
to use good cement, and, second, the work must be care- 
fully and skillfully done. This is particularly true of re- 
inforced concrete. The mixing of the concrete requires 
skill as Avell as does the tamping of the concrete in the 
forms. The proportion of sand to mix with the gravel or 
crushed stone will vary somewhat with the character of 
the gravel and the sand and it requires experience tp 
know just the right proportions to use. The proportion of 
cement to sand will vary with the cement and with the 
sand. This again involves skill. The amount of water to 
use will vary considerably with circumstances. If the 
cement is too wet or too dry best results will not be ob- 
tained. Experience and skill are again involved here. 

"If it were possible to have the work skillfully done 
a cement silo 16 feet in diameter and 35 feet high could 
be built of reinforced concrete with walls only 2 or 3 
inches thick and be abundantly strong. But labor suffi- 
ciently skilled to do this would cost too much, so that 
it would be cheaper to use twice as much cement; make 
wall 6 or 8 inches thick and use less skilled labor. If the 
work is carefully done using ordinary labor it is prac- 
ticable to build silos 16 feet in diameter and 35 feet high 
with 6 or 8 inch walls if the steel rod is laid in the wall 
every 2 or 3 feet." 

Reinforced concrete offers great possibilities for silo 
building. The lateral pressure on the walls when the silo 
is filled is very great, but the circular shape renders it 
very easy to reinforce. The freezing of the silage has 
heretofore been the one disadvantage of solid walls, espe- 
cially in cold climates, but this has been largely overcome 
l)y machines now on the market that easily and success- 
fully build reinforced and continuous hollow walls. (See 
pages 165 and 166 for special articles on frozen silage.) 

The foundation, as in all other concrete structures, is 
very important. Not only must it serve as an anchor to 
protect the structure against wind pressure, but it must 
also be very strong and firm or the great weight upon it 



REINFORCED CONCRETE. 126 

will cause it to settle unevenly, in which event the walls 
are liable to crack and so admit air; consequently, spoiled 
silage will be the result. 

The Missouri State Board of Agriculture in its March, 
1906j bulletin describes a concrete silo built by Mr. C. J. 
W. Jones, Roanoke, Mo., in the summer of 1905, as follows: 
"It is 16 by 40 feet inside measurement, it being 9 feet in 
the ground. He first dug the hole and leveled the bottom. 
Then started the inside form, which was made of old 
pieces of fence boards stood on end around the circle and 
held in place by thin limber boards tacked onto them. He 
also had a center pole to guide by and brace to. The bot- 
tom wall was made thick and tamped against the earth 
bank. When the level of the ground was reached he care- 
fully leveled up the work and started the outside form, 
which was made of a band of iron, 20 inches wide and 
53.43 feet long, rolled to form the circle and was fastened 
with clamps at the ends. The silo being 16 feet in diame- 
ter and the walls 6 inches thick, the form is then 17 feet 
in diameter. This was leveled and the space between it 
and the inner wall of boards filled with concrete and 
tamped. When this hardened the form was loosened, 
raised and screwed tight again after getting it level; the 
space again filled and so on to the top. The inner wall 
was raised as needed, being braced against the center 
pole from all sides." 

The wall was reinforced to prevent cracking by build- 
ing a wire rope into it every few feet. The door frames 
were built into the wall while it was being made. The 
material for the silo cost about $150.00. 

We quote from Bulletin No. 125 of the Wisconsin 
station: 

"A common type of form used in making a continuous 
wall or monolithic structure is illustrated in Fig. 41. A is 
the outside form and B the inside form. These forms are 
made as segments of the circle 6 or 10 feet in length and 
1^ to 3 feet deep. A form is made by taking two pieces 
of plank 2x12 or 2x14, LL and UTJ, Fig. 41 A, sawing them 



126 



CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 



out to the curvature of the circle. These are placed hori- 
zontally as girts and the short planks P are set vertically' 
nailing them to the girts, LU. The form 41 B is made in 
the reverse of 41 A. 

"In building the wall, form B is set inside of form A 
and 6 to 12 inches from it depending on the thickness de- 
sired for the wall, and the concrete is filled in between the 
forms." 




A Outs/ds Form 




3. Inside Form 

Fig, 41, Illustrates method of making form for construct- 
ing concrete walls. The forms are made of plank and are 
made in sections 4 to 10 feet long, requiring 5 to 8 sec- 
tions to complete the circle. 

— Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



CEMENT BLOCKS. 



127 



Cement Blocks, 

Continuing, the Bulletin just mentioned has the follow- 
ing regarding cement block silos: 

Cement blocks are now made in a great variety of 
forms and these are being used to some extent in silo con- 
struction. Walls built of cement blocks, however, are not 
so strong as are walls in which the concrete is built in 
place, making what is known as a monolithic structure. 
When cement blocks are used it is necessary to use bands 
or rods in the wall laying them between the courses the 
same as in the stone or brick construction. 

Cement blocks to be used in silo construction are 
usually made with curved sides, the curvature being that 
of the silo in question. A common type of block for this 
purpose is illustrated in Fig. 39. The blocks are made 
hollow, holes being left at H and H. The blocks are made 
with a dovetailed tenon at one end, as at T, and a dove- 
tailed mortise at the other end, as at M, so that wjien 
the blocks are laid on the wall they interlock. The blocks 
are sometimes made with a small groove near the outside 
edge as G, G, and on every third or fourth course a small 




Fig. 39, Illustrates a type of concrete block used in silo construction. 
H. H. are holes left in blocks. T. and M. are dovc-tailcd tenon and 
mortise so made that blocks interlock when laid on the wall. G. is a 
groove made in block to imbed iron rod for reinforcing the wall. 

— Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



128 



CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 



rod (^-inch iron) is laid in this groove and embedded in 
the masonry. 

The cement block walls can be built more cheaply than 
can the monolithic walls, providing the building is not 
more than a mile or two from the factory where the blocks 
are made, and in some instances the manufacturers will 
move out their forms, mixers and other utensils for mak- 
ing cement blocks and make the blocks at the building site 
and still build more cheaply than the monolith can be 
built. It is possible to do this because the work can be 
done with greater facility on the ground level than up in 
the air on scaffolding. Cement blocks are turned out 
rapidly in a factory where all the facilities are at hand. 

Cement blocks are usually made of finer materials 
than are the solid monolithic walls. The blocks are made 
of sand and cement; or if any gravel is used, it is very 
fine gravel, whereas, in the continuous wall, monolithic 
construction, coarser gravel or crushed stone is more 
commonly used. This is one of the reasons why the 
monolithic wall is stronger than the block wall. 

The continuous wall may be made with holes or spaces 
the same as the holes H, H, in the block. Fig. 39. This is 




Fig, 40, Illustrates a tapering wood block used in making hollow con- 
crete walls. — Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. 



TO MAINTAIN THE CEMENT LINING. 129 

accomplished by using short pieces of plank with smooth 
sides tapering toward one end, as shown in Fig. 40. These 
tapering wood blocks are set in the forms two or three 
inches apart near the center of the wall and the concrete 
filled in around them. After the first "set," that is, after 
a few hours the tapering blocks are drawn out leaving the 
hollow walls and the forms are raised the next day or the 
day following and the process repeated." 

To Maintain tlie Cement Lining. — The Cement Lining 
or the Cement Block, if not properly cared for, is certain 
to become porous or to crack, due to the action of the 
acids in the silage. All such linings should be treated to 
a wash of cement once about every two years. A good 
wash is made by mixing Portland Cement with water, mak- 
ing the mixture the consistency of white wash, and apply- 
ing it with a white wash brush or spray pump, mixing 
only a gallon or two at a time and applying it at once. 

When filling the silo, it has been recommended to use 
plenty of water around the edges next to the wall. 

Fig. 42 illustrates a cement block silo built by Mr. 
Alfred S. Dunlap, Centre, Ralls County, Mo. It is 16x32 
feet inside and extends 18 inches into the ground. Writ- 
ing to the Missouri State Board of Agriculture he says: 
"The blocks are 6x6 inches by 2 feet long. Used 200 sacks 
of Portland or Atlas brand cement in the foundation and 
blocks. 1400 blocks were required to build it. Just what 
the cost was I do not know, as my farm help worked at 
making the blocks, commencing in the spring, and working 
at odd times. It, perhaps, cost $275.00, but I did not haul 
my sand and gravel more than 100 rods. I used a No. 14 
cutter and a 10 horse-power traction engine, and did the 
work of cutting to my entire satisfaction. We worke(i 
three days and filled it about two-thirds full, and filled 
with corn grown on bottom lands and very heavy." 

Mr. J. O. Bailey, Kirksville, Mo., writing to the same 
Board of Agriculture gives an instructive description of 
the building of his 16x32 silo. 

"I made the blocks myself — size 8 by 8 by 24 inches, 
9 



130 



CONCRETE OR CEMENT StLOS. 



curved enough so that 25 of them would lay a complete 
circle, 16 feet in diameter in the clear. Proportioned the 
cement and sand 1 to 5, I. e., 1 part cement to 5 parts 
sand. It took about 50 yards of sand and 205 sacks of 
cement. I also laid a No. 9 wire between each layer of 




Fig, 42, (^^ment block silo. The kind built by Mr. Dunlap of 
Centre, Ralls county. Mo. — Courtesy Hoard's Dairyman. 



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132 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. 

blocks up twenty feet. I don't think now it is really 
necessary to use the wire. 

"I had a mason to superintend making of the blocks, 
but any one with average intelligence can make the blocks 
as good as a mason. The main thing is to get sand and 
cement thoroughly mixed. It does not want to be too wet, 
just moist enough to pack good in the mold. After the 
blocks have been made half a day or so they should be 
wet every day; this keeps them from drying too fast and 
from cracking. 

"I hired a mason to lay up the blocks; this is the only 
skillful work about it, they have got to be laid up true. 
I did not cement inside of silo. My silage spoiled some 
around the outside. This is due to lack of moisture in the 
silage and also in the wall. I should have wet the silage 
and wall as the silo was filled, but was not fixed to do 
this. 

"My silo is built 3i^ feet below the surface and in the 
last 4 or 5 feet of silage there was not a forkful spoiled. 

"Two men can make 90 to 100 blocks a day after they 
become accustomed to it, I used a wood mold which any 
carpenter can make and will not cost over $1 or $1.50, at 
most. 

"Now as to the doors. I used 2x6 plank for the jambs 
and set them flush with the outside of the wall; as the 
blocks are 8 inches thick there are two inches on inside 
for door to set in. The doors are ship-lap double with a 
good quality of tar paper in between, also a layer of tar 
paper on the side that sets against the jamb. The doors 
are 2 feet square and every 4 feet. Total cost about 
$225.00. The cost for labor to fill it I estimate at $50.00." 

"This is a cost of nearly $2.00 per ton capacity, but 
inasmuch as it will last a great many years it may be the 
cheapest kind in the long run." 



CHAPTER VII. 

SILAGE CROPS. 

Indian Corn. — Indian corn is, as has already been 
stated, the main silage crop in this country, and is likely 
to always remain so. Before explaining the filling of the 
silo and the making of silage, it will be well, therefore, 
to state briefly the main conditions which govern the pro- 
duction of a large crop of corn for the silo, and to ex- 
amine which varieties of corn are best adapted for silage 
making. 

Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation of 
land. — The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian corn 
are well-drained medium soils, loams or sandy loams, in a 
good state of fertility. Corn will give best results coming 
after clover. The preparation of the land for growing 
corn is the same whether ear corn or forage is the object. 
Fall plowing is practiced by many successful corn growers. 
The seed is planted on carefully prepared ground at such 
a time as convenient and advisable. Other things being 
equal, the earlier the planting the better, after the danger 
of frost is ordinarily over. "The early crop may fail, but 
the late crop is almost sure to fail." After planting, the 
soil should be kept pulverized and thoroughly cultivated. 
Shallow cultivation will ordinarily give better results than 
deep cultivation, as the former method suffices to destroy 
the weeds and to preserve the soil moisture, which are the 
essential points sought in cultivating crops. The culti- 
vation should be no more frequent than is necessary for 
the complete eradication of weeds. It has been found that 
the yield of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as 
well as by insufficient cultivation. The general rule may 
be given to cultivate as often, but no oftener, than is nec- 
essary to kill the weeds, or keep the soil pulverized. 

133 



134 SILAGE CROPS. 

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon as 
the young plants break through the surface, and the soil 
kept stirred and weeds destroyed, until cultivation is no 
longer practicable. 

Varieties of corn for the silo. — The best corn for the 
silo, in any locality, is that variety which will be reason- 
ably sure to mature before frost, and which produces a 
large amount of foliage and ears. The best varieties for 
the New England States, are the Learning, Sanford, and 
Flint corn; for the Middle States, Learning, White and 
Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the 
Learning, Sanford, Flint and WTiite Dent will be apt to 
give the best results, while in the South, the Southern 
Horse Tooth, Mosby Prolific, and other large dent corns 
are preferred. 

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best adapt- 
ed for the silo; for Northern Ontario, North Dakota and 
Compton's Early Flint; for Central Ontario, larger and 
heavier-yielding varieties may be grown, viz.. Mammoth 
Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest White Dent. It is useless 
to grow a variety for silage which will not be in a firm 
dough state by the time the first frosts are likely to 
appear. 

In the early stages of siloing corn in this country, the 
effort was to obtain an immense yield of fodder per acre, 
no matter whether the corn ripened or not. Large yields 
were doubtless, often obtained with these big varieties, 
although it is uncertain that the actual yields ever came 
up to the claims made. Bailey's Mammoth Ensilage Corn, 
"if planted upon good corn land, in good condition, well 
matured, with proper cultivation," was guaranteed to pro- 
duce from forty to seventy-five tons of green fodder to 
the acre, "just right for ensilage." We now know that 
the immense Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an 
immature stage, as must necessarily be the case in North- 
ern States, may contain less than ten per cent, of dry 
matter, the rest (more than nine-tenths of the total 
weight) being made up of water. This is certainly a re- 



YIELDS OF SOUTHERN AND MAINE CORN. 135 

markable fact, when we remember that skim-milk, even 
when obtained by the separator process will contain 
nearly ten per cent, of solid matter. 

In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at 
an immature stage, Prof. Robertson, of Canada, said at 
a Wisconsin Farmers' Institute, "Fodder corn sowed 
broadcast does not meet the needs of milking cows. Such 
a fodder is mainly a device of a thoughtless farmer to 
fool his cows into believing that they have been fed, when 
they have only been filled up." The same applies with 
equal strength to the use of large, immature Southern 
varieties of fodder, or for the silo, in Northern States. 

In comparative variety tests with corn in the North, 
Southern varieties have usually been found to furnish 
larger quantities per acre of both green fodder and total 
dry matter in the fodder, than the smaller Northern vari- 
eties. As an average of seven culture trials, Professor 
Jordan thus obtained the following results at the Maine 
Station. 



COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SOUTHERN CORN AND MAINE 
FIELD CORN GROWN IN MAINE, 188S-1893. 





SOUTHERN CORN. 


MAINE FIELD CORN. 




Green 
Fod- 
der. 


Dry 
Substance. 


Dig'estible 
Matter. 


Green 
Fod- 
der, 


Dry 

Substance. 


Dig'estible 
Matter. 




Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 


Maximum 
Minimum 
Average. . 


46,340 
26,295 
34,761 


16.58 
12.30 
14.50 


6,237 
3,234 
5,036 


69 
61 
65 


3,923 
2,102 
3,251 


29,400 
14,212 
22,269 


25.43 
13.55 

18.75 


7,064 
2,415 
4,224 


78 
70 
72 


4,9^5 
1,715 
3,076 



The average percentage digestibility of the dry sub- 
stance is 65 per cent, for the Southern corn, and 72 per 
cent, for the Maine field corn, all the results obtained for 
the former varieties being lower than those obtained for 
the latter. While the general result for the five years, so 
far as the yield of digestible matter is concerned, i^ 



136 SILAGE CROPS. 

slightly in favor of the Southern varieties, the fact should 
not be lost sight of that an average of 6^/4 tons more of 
material has annually to be handled over several times, 
in case of these varieties of corn, in order to gain 175 
pounds more of digestible matter per acre; we therefore, 
conclude that the smaller, less watery, variety of corn 
really proved the more profitable. 

At other Northern stations similar results, or results 
more favorable to the Northern varieties, have been ob- 
tained, showing that the modern practice of growing only 
such corn for the silo as will mature in the particular 
locality of each farmer, is borne out by the results of 
careful culture tests. 

Time of cutting corn for tlie silo. — In order to deter- 
mine at what stage of growth corn had better be cut when 
intended for the silo, it is necessary to ascertain the 
amount of food materials which the corn plant contains 
at the different stages, and the proportion of different in- 
gredients at each stage. From careful and exhaustive 
studies of the changes occurring in the composition of the 
corn plant, which have been conducted both in this coun- 
try and abroad, we know that as corn approaches maturity 
the nitrogenous or flesh-forming substances decrease in 
proportion to the other components, while the non-nitro- 
genous components, especially starch (see Glossary), in- 
crease very markedly; this increase continues until the 
crop is nearly mature, so long as the leaves are still 
green. Several experiment stations have made investi- 
gations in regard to this point. As an illustration we 
give below data obtained by Prof. Ladd, in an investiga- 
tion in which fodder corn was cut and analyzed at five 
different stages of growth, from full tasseling to maturity. 

The data given below show how rapidly the yield of 
food materials increases with the advancing age of th^ 
corn, and also that increase during the later stages of 
growth comes largely on the nitrogen-fed extract (starch, 
sugar, etc.). 



TABLE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES. 



137 



CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE CORN CROP. 



YIELD PER ACRE. 



Gross Weight 

Water in the Crop .... 

Dry Matter 

Ash 

Crude Protein 

Crude Fiber 

Nitrogen-free Extract 
(starch, sugar, etc.) 
Crude Fat 



Tas- 


Silked, 


Milk, 


Glazed, 


seled, 
July 30 


Aug. 9 


Aug. 21 


Sept. 7 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


18045 


25745 


32600 


32295 


16426 


22666 


2<957 


25093 


2619 


3078 


4643 


7202 


138.9 


201.3 


232.2 


302.5 


239.8 


436.8 


478.7 


643.9 


514.2 


872.9 


1262.0 


2755.9 


653.9 


1399.3 


2441.3 


3239.8 


72.2 


167.8 


228.9 


260.0 



Ripe, 
Sept.. 23 



Pounds 

28460 

20542 
7918 
364.2 
677.8 

1734.0 

4827.6 
314.3 



The results as to this point obtained at several ex- 
periment stations have been summarized and are given 
in the follov^ing table, sliowing the increase in food in- 
gredients during the stages previous to maturity. 

We thus find that the largest amount of food ma- 
terials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn is 
well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total 
growth in height it has, as shown by results given in 
the last table, attained only one-third to one-half of the 
weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity; 
hence we see the wisdom of postponing cutting the corn 
for the silo, as in general for forage purposes until rather 
late in the season, when it can be done without danger 
of frost. 

The table given in the preceding, and our discussion 
so far, have taken into account only the total, and not the 
digestible components of the corn. 

It has been found through careful digestion trials 
that older plants are somewhat less digestible than young 
plants. There is, however, no such difference in the 
digestibility of the total dry matter or its components as 
is found in the total quantities obtained from plants at 
the different stages of growth, and the total yields of 



1381 



SILAGE CROPS. 



digestible matter in the corn will therefore be greater 
at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any 
earlier stage of growth. Hence we find that the general 
practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time when the 
corn is in the roasting-ear stage, when the kernels have 
become rather firm, and are dented or beginning to glaze, 
is good science and in accord with our best knowledge on 
the subject. 

INCREASE IN FOOD INGREDIENTS FROM TASSELING 
TO MATURITY. 









1 


Gain in per cent. 






stage of Maturity. 


between first 
and last cutting. 


EXPERIMENT 










Variety. 








^ 




, 


STATION. 




First 
Cutting. 


Last 
Cutting. 




i 3 


t'^ 












(^>i 


CPh 


Ofe 


6W 


Cornell, N. Y. 


Pride of the 










North 


Bloom 


Mature 


150 


90 


129 


1G9 


<( <( (> 


Pride of the 




Nearly 












North 


«' 


mature 


217 


134 


374 


300 


Geneva, N. Y. 


King Philip 


Tasseled 


Mature 


389 


183 


335 


462 


New Hamp. 


Av.of 4 var. 


(( 


Glazed 


112 


50 


84 


130 


Pennsylvania 


Av.of 10 var. 


t( 


Mature 


155 








Vermont 


Av.of 2 var. 


(( 


Glazed 


122 


50 






a 


(( <' a (f 


Bloom 


t( 


204 
193 


81 
98 


230 




Average of all 


trials 


•w> 







Other reasons why cutting at a late period of growth 
is preferable in siloing corn are found in the fact that 
the quality of the silage made from such corn is much 
better than that obtained from green immature corn, and 
in the fact that the sugar is most abundant in the corn 
plant in the early stages of ear development, but the 
loss of non-nitrogenous components in the silo falls first 
of all on the sugar, hence it is the best policy to post- 
pone cutting until the grain is full-sized and the sugar has 
largely been changed to starch. 

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity 



METHODS OP PLANTING CORN. l3 

in the first chapter to delay the cutting so long that the 
corn plant becomes too dry, for the reason stated. Silage 
does not spoil when too wet, but will mold if too dry. 
Experience will be the best guide, but the foregoing pages 
should enable the reader to form the right idea as to 
time for filling, which to secure the best results, is nearly 
as important as to have material with which to fill the 
silo. 

Methods of Planting Corn. When the corn crop is 
intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer 
than is ordinarily the case when the production of a large 
crop of ear corn is the primary object sought. Thin seed- 
ing favors the development of well-developed, strong 
plants, but not the production of a large amount of green 
forage. The number of plants which can be brought to 
perfect development on a certain piece of land depends 
upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of 
the season, especially whether it is a wet or dry season, 
as well as other factors, hence no absolute rule can be 
given as to the best thickness of planting corn for the 
silo. Numerous experiments conducted in different parts 
of the country have shown, however, that the largest 
quantities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob- 
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two 
feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants 
six or eight inches apart in the row. 

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield 
obtained is concerned, whether the corn is planted in 
hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds 
in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably 
to plant the corn in drills if this is done by means of a 
corn harvester or sled cutter, as is now generally the 
case. The yield seems more dependent on the number 
of plants grown on a certain area of land than on the 
arrangement of planting the corn. Hills four feet each 
way, with four stalks to the hill, will thus usually give 
about the same yield as hills two feet apart, with stalks 
two stalks to the hill or drills four feet apart with -stalks 



140 SILAGE CROPS. 

one foot apart in the row, etc. The question of planting 
corn in hills or in drills is therefore largely one of greater 
or less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the 
two methods. This will depend on the character of the 
land; where the land is uneven, and check-rowing of the 
corn difficult, or when the land is free from weeds, drill 
planting is preferable, while, conversely, on fields where 
this can be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply 
be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check- 
rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is econom- 
ical production and preservation of a good quality of feed, 
the economy and certainty in caring for the growing 
crop is of considerable importance, and generally planting 
in hills not too far apart will be found *to facilitate this, 
especially during wet season. 

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broadcast, 
whether intended for the silo, or for production of ear 
corn; when sown broadcast, the corn cannot be kept free 
from weeds, except by hand labor. More seed is moreover 
required, the plants shade each other and will therefore 
not reach full development, from lack of sufficient sunshine 
and moisture, and a less amount of available food con- 
stituents per acre will be produced. 

Other Silage Crops. 

Clover. Clover is second to Indian corn in impor- 
tance as a silage crop. We are but beginning to appreciate 
the value of clover in modern agriculture. It has been 
shown that the legumes, the family to which clover 
belongs, are the only common forage plants able to con- 
vert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that may 
be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other 
legumes, therefore, draw largely on the air for the most 
expensive and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and 
for this reason, as well as on account of their deep roots, 
which bring fertilizing elements up near the surface, they 
enrich the land upon which they grow. Being a more 



CLOVER SILAGE. 141 

nitrogenous food than corn or the grasses, clover sup- 
plies a good deal of the protein compounds required by 
farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for 
the production of milk, wool or meat. By feeding clover, 
a smaller purchase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs, 
like fiour-mill or oil-mill refuse products, is therefore ren- 
dered necessary than when corn is fed; on account of its 
high fertilizing value it furthermore enables the farmer 
feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land. 

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed 
for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher pro- 
tein contents it has an advantage over corn silage in 
point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin dairy 
farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover estimates 
the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1, 
against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average 
yield per acre of green clover is about twelve tons. 

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of 
its succulence and greater palatability, as well as its 
higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is mainly 
due to the fact that all the parts of the clover plant are 
preserved in the silo, with a small unavoidable loss in 
fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves and tender 
parts, which contain about two-thirds of the protein com- 
pounds, are often largely lost by abrasion. 

Clover may easily and cheaply be placed in a modern 
silo and preserved in a perfect condition. The failures 
reported in the early stages of silo filling were largely 
due to the faulty construction of the silo. Clover does not 
pack as well as the heavy green corn, and therefore, re- 
quires to be cut and weighted, or calls for greater depth 
in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficiently ex- 
cluded. 

When to Cut Clover for the Silo. — The yield of food 
materials obtained from clover at different stages of 
growth has been studied by a number of scientists. The 
following table giving the results of an investigation con- 
ducted by Professor Atwater will show the total quan- 



142 



SILAGE CROPS. 



titles of food materials secured at four different stages 
of growth of red clover. 



YIELD PER ACRE OF RED CLOVER — IN POUNDS. 



STAGE OF 
CUTTING. 


Green 
Weig-ht 


Dry 

Matter 


Crude 
Protein 


Crude 
Fiber. 


N-free 
Extract 


Crude 
Fat. 


Ash. 


Just before 
bloom 

Full bloom . . . 

Nearly out 
of bloom. . . 

Nearly ripe . . 


3,570 
2,650 

4,960 
3,910 


1,385 
1,401 

1,750 
1,523 


198 
189 

230 

158 


384 
390 

523 
484 


664 

682 

837 
746 


24 
33 

31 
36 


115 
107 

129 
99 



Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of hay per acre 
from clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds when 
three-fourths of the heads were dead. The yields of dry 
matter in the two cases were 2,526 pounds, and 2,427 
pounds respectively. All components, except crude fibre 
(see Glossary), yielded less per acre in the second cut- 
ting. Jordan found the same result, comparing the yields 
and composition of clover cut when in bloom, some heads 
dead, and heads all dead, the earliest cutting giving the 
maximum yield of dry matter, and of all components ex- 
cept crude fibre. 

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for 
the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single heads 
are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for hay-making, 
and we notice that the teachings of the investigations 
made are in conformity with this practice. 

Many farmers are increasing the value of their corn 
silage by the addition of clover. A load of clover to a 
load or two loads of well-matured corn is a good mixture. 

Alfalfa (lucerne) is the great, coarse forage plant of 
the West, and during late years, it has been grown con- 
siderably in the Northern and Central States. In irrigated 
districts it will yield more food materials per acre of land 
than perhaps any other crop. Four to five cuttings, each 
yielding a ton to a ton and a half of hay, are common in 



cow PEAS. 143 

these regions, and the yields obtained are often much 
higher. In humid regions three cuttings may ordinarily 
be obtained^ each of one to one and a half tons of hay. 

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay, 
alfalfa is also of considerable importance as a silage crop 
in dairy sections of the Western States. As with red 
clover, reports of failure in siloing alfalfa are on record, 
but first-class alfalfa silage can be readily made in deep, 
modern silos, when the crop is cut when in full bloom, 
and the plants are not allowed to wilt much before being 
i-un through a cutter and siloed. In the opinion of the 
dairymen who have had large experience in siloing alfalfa, 
sweet alfalfa silage is more easily made than good al- 
falfa hay. 

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover 
refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favor- 
ably with clover silage, both in. chemical composition and 
In feeding value. It is richer in flesh-forming substances 
(protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage, 
and makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, espe- 
cially young stock and dairy cows. 

Cow Peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the 
West, and when properly handled make excellent and 
most valuable silage. The cow peas are sown early in 
the season, either broadcast, about li/^ bushels to the 
acre and turned under with a one-horse turning plow, or 
drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut with 
a mower when one-half or more of the peas on the vines 
are fully ripe, and are immediately raked in windrows 
and hauled to the silo, where they are run through a feed 
cutter and cut into inch lengths. 

Cow pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals 
after they once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor; 
farmers who have had considerable practical experience 
in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea 
gilage has no equal for cows and sheep. It is also a good 
hog food, and for all these animals is considered greatly 
superior to pea-vine hay. In feeding experiments at a 



144 SILAGE CROPS. 

Delaware experiment station six pounds of pea-vine silage 
fully took the place of one pound of wlieat bran, and the 
product of one acre was found equivalent to two tons of 
bran. 

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate 
loads of cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into the 
silo, which will make a very satisfactory mixed silage. A 
modification of this practice is known as Getty's method, 
in which corn and cow peas are grown in alternate rows, 
and harvested together with a corn harvester. Corn for 
this combination crop is preferably a large Southern vari- 
ety, drilled in rows 4i^ feet apart, with stalks 9 to 16 
inches apart in the row. Whippoorwill peas are planted 
in drills close to the rows of corn when this is about six 
inches high, and has been cultivated once. The crop is 
cut when the corn is beginning to glaze, and when three- 
fourths of the pea pods are ripe. 

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these 
run through the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas are 
carefully leveled off and trampled down in the silo, and 
about a foot cover of green corn, straw or cottonseed 
hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. As in case of all 
legumes, it is safest to wet the cover thoroughly with at 
least two gallons of water per square foot of surface. 
This will seal the siloed mass thoroughly and will pre- 
vent the air from working in from the surface and spoil- 
ing considerable of the silage on top. 

A similar effort of combining several feeds for the 
silo is found in the so-called Robertson Ensilage Mixture 
for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in Canada. This 
is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and 
horse beans in the proportion of 1 acre corn, i/^ acre horse 
beans, and ^4 acre sunflowers. The principle back of the 
practice is to furnish a feed richer in protein substances 
than corn, and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities 
of expensive protein foods like bran, oil meal, etc. Feed- 
ing experiments conducted with the Robertson Silage 
Mixture for cows at several experiment stations have 



SOJA BEANS AND SORGHUM. 145 

given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this 
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain 
ration of milch cows without causing loss of flesh or 
lessening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds 
of this silage may be considered equivalent to three or 
four pounds of grain feeds. The practice has not, how- 
ever, been adopted to any great extent, so far as is known, 
owing to the difficulty of securing a good quality of silage 
from the mixture and of growing the horse beans success- 
fully. 

Soja beans (soy beans) are another valuable silage 
crop. According to the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
the soy bean is highly nutritive, gives a heavy yield, and 
is easily cultivated. The vigorous late varieties are well 
adapted for silage. The crop is frequently siloed with 
corn (2 parts of the latter to 1 of the former), and like 
other legumes it improves the silage by tending to counter- 
act the acid reaction of corn silage. Of other Southern 
crops that are used for silage crops may be' mentioned 
Kaffir corn, chicken corn and teosinte. 

Sorghum is sometimes siloed in the Western and Mid- 
dle States, and in the South. It is sown in drills, 3i^ inches 
apart, with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and 
is cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or before. 
According to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and 
non-saccharine sorghum are excellent for silage. The 
sorghums are less liable to be damaged by insects than 
corn, and they remain green far into the fall, so that the 
work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the 
corn is ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre 
of green sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-half as 
much again as a good crop of corn. These considera- 
tions lead Professor Shelton to pronounce sorghum greatly 
superior to corn as silage materials, in Kansas, and gen- 
erally throughout the Central Western States. The Ottawa 
(Can.) Station states that sorghum, where it can be grown 
makes an excellent crop for silage. It needs to be cut, 
the best length, as in the case of corn being three-quarters 
of an inch long, or less. 
10 



146 SILAGE CROPS. 

Sorghum, like corn, contains an excess of carbohydrates 
and is somewhat deficient in protein. Its value i§ in- 
creased therefore by the addition of some leguminous crop 
such as cow peas. 

Miscellaneous Silage Crops. In Northern Europe, 
especially in England, and the Scandinavian countries, 
meadow grass and after-math (rowen) are usually siloed; 
in England, at the present time, largely in stacks. 

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar- 
beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a low 
cost, stock raisers and dairym.en have a most valuable 
aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the pulp is 
taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent, of 
water; it packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided 
and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore 
be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in 
siloing corn, and especially clover and other crops of 
similar character. If pulp is siloed with other fodder 
crops, it is preferably placed uppermost, for the reason 
stated. Beet tops and pulp are often siloed in alternate 
layer in pits 3 to 4 feet deep, and covered with boards 
and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully 
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed 
in such silos as there will then be much smaller losses 
of food materials than in case of shallow silos or trenches 
in the field. 

Wheat, rye and oats have been siloed for summer feed- 
ing with some success. A recent correspondent in Hoard's 
Dairyman tells of sowing some 23 acres of rye and 9 acres 
of wheat in the fall of 1907 and filling one silo with the 
rye the following May and the other with wheat early in 
June, just when they were headed out but before the grain 
was actually formed. Several acres of oats and peas were 
put into a third silo the first week in July. In cutting 
the rye and wheat it was necessary to take the precaution 
of cutting into short lengths and of carefully treading 
and packing it in the silo, in order to insure its keeping 
qualities. "It has kept very well until entirely consumed 



\ MISCELLANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. 147 

by the cattle, and we have no reason to suppose that it 
would not have kept if we had not used it up when we 
did. But our experience has been that neither tlie rye nor 
the wheat is equal to corn silage for feed. In fact the 
cows did not eat the rye as clean as they should have done 
and fell off somewhat in milk. When we began on the 
wheat, however, they did better and we believe the wheat 
to be better material for silage than rye." 

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low 
in ash and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see Glossary). 
Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn 
silage. 

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in the 
agricultural literature of the siloing of a large number of 
plants, or products, like vetches, small grains (cut green), 
cabbage leaves, sugar beets, potatoes, potato leaves, tur- 
nips, brewers' grains, apple pomace, refuse from corn and 
pea canning factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; 
even fern (brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been 
made into silage, and used with more or less success as 
foods for farm animals. 

At a recent convention of the California Dairy Asso- 
ciation the president, Mr. A. P. Martin, stated that the best 
silage he ever made, besides corn, was made of weeds. A 
piece of wheat which was sowed early, was drowned out, 
and the field came up with tar v/eed and sorrel. This was 
made into silage, and when fed to milch cows, produced 
most satisfactory results. 

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and 
profitable thing to have on a farm even if silage crops are 
not regularly raised to fill it. There are always waste 
products, green or half-dry, with coarse materials like 
swale hay, that are generally used for compost or bed- 
ding, which may be made into palatable silage. A mix- 
ture, in equal parts, of rag-weed, swamp grass or swale- 
hay, old corn stalks or straw, and second-crop green 
clover, nearly three-fourths of which would otherwise be 
almost useless, will make a superior silage, surprising 
to those who never tried it. 



148 SILAGE CROPS. 

The following description of the contents filled into 
a New York silo, which was used as a sort of catch-all, is 
given by the same writer: 1, 18 in. deep of green oats; 
2, 6 in. of red clover; 3, 6 in. of Canada field peas; 4, 
3 in. of brewers' grains; 5, 2 feet of whole corn plants, 
sowed broadcast, and more rag-weed than corn; 6, 5 in. 
of second-crop grass; 7, 12 in. of sorghum; 8, a lot im- 
mature corn cut in short lengths. The silage came out 
pretty acid, but made good forage, and was all eaten up 
clean. Damaged crops like frosted beets, potatoes, cab- 
bages, etc.; rutabagas which showed signs of decay, and 
clover that could not be made into hay because of rain, 
may all be placed in a silo and thus made to contribute 
to the food supply on the farm. 

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California, 
viz., for rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in 
feeding cattle. The foxtail which almost takes the first 
crop of alfalfa in many parts of California, is a nutritious 
grass, but on account of its beards, is dangerous to feed. 
By siloing the crop the grass is said to be rendered per- 
fectly harmless; the alfalfa-foxtail silage thus obtained 
is eaten by stock with great relish and without any in- 
jurious effects. (Wall). 



CHAPTER VIIL 

HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

Filling the Silo. 

A. Indian Corn. As previously stated, corn should 
be left in the field before cutting until it has passed 
through the dough stage i. e., when the kernels are well 
dented or glazed, in case of flint varieties. Where very- 
large silos are filled and in cases of extreme dry weather 
when the corn is fast drying up, it will be well to begin 
filling the silo a little before it has reached this stage, 
as the greater portion of the corn would otherwise be 
apt to be too dry. There is, however, less danger in this 
respect now than formerly, on account of our modern deep 
silos, and because we have found that water applied 
directly to the fodder in the silo acts in the same way as 
water in the fodder, and keeps the fermentations in the 
silo in check and in the right track. 

Cutting the Corn in the Field. The cutting of corn 
for the silo is usually on small farms done by hand by 
means of a corn knife. Many farmers have been using 
self-raking and binding corn harvesters for this purpose, 
while others report good success with a sled or platform 
cutter. If the corn stands up well, and is not of a very 
large variety, the end sought may be reached in a satis- 
factory manner by either of these methods. If, on the 
other hand, much of the corn is down, hand cutting is to 
be preferred. A number of different makes of corn har- 
vesters and corn cutters are now on the market; and it 
is very likely that hand-cutting of fodder corn will be 
largely done away with in years to come, at least on large 
farms, indeed, it looks as if the day of the corn knife was 
passing away, and as if this implement will soon be rele- 
gated to obscurity with the sickle of our fathers' time. 

149 



150 HOW TO MAKE SILAGtJ. 

If a com harvester is used, it will be found to be a 
great advantage to have the bundles made what seems 
rather small. It will take a little more twine, but the 
loaders, the haulers, the unloaders, and even the Silage 
Cutter itself will handle much more corn in a day if the 
bundles are small and light, and it will be found to be 
economy to see that this is done. 

A platform cutter, which was used with great suc- 
cess, is described by a veteran Wisconsin dairyman, the 
late Mr. Charles R. Beach. 

"We use two wagons, with platforms built upon two 
timbers, eighteen feet long, suspended beneath the axles. 
These platforms are about eighteen inches from the ground 
and are seven feet wide. The cutting knife is fastened 
upon a small removable platform, two feet by about three 
and one-half feet, which is attached to the side of the large 
platform, and is about six or eight inches lower. One row 
is cut at a time, the knife striking the corn at an angle of 
about forty-five degrees. One man kneels on the small 
platform and takes the corn with his arm; two or three 
men stand upon the wagon, and as soon as he has gotten 
an armful, the men, each in turn, take it from him and pile 
it on the wagon. If the rows are long enough a load of 
one and one-half to two tons can be cut and loaded on in 
about eight or ten minutes. The small platform is de- 
tached from the wagon, the load driven to the silo, the 
platform attached to the other wagon, and another load 
is cut and loaded. None of the corn reaches the ground; 
no bending down to pick up. One team will draw men, 
cutter, and load, and I do not now well see how the method 
could be improved. With a steam engine, a large cutter, 
two teams and wagons, and ten men we filled our silo 
22x24x18 feet (190 tons), fast, in less than two days." 

Professor Georgeson, has described a one-horse sledge- 
cutter which has given better satisfaction than any fodder- 
cutter tried at the Kansas Experiment Station. It is 
provided with two knives, which are hinged to the body 
of the sled, and can be folded in on the sled, when not in 



CUTTING AND HAULING THE CORN. 



151 



use. It has been improved and made easier to pull by 
providing it with four low and broad cast-iron wheels. 
It is pulled by a single horse and cuts two rows at a time. 
Two men stand upon the cutter, each facing a row; as the 
corn is cut they gather it into armfuls, which they drop 
into heaps on the ground, A wagon with a low, broad 
rack follows, on which the corn is loaded and hauled to 
the silo. 

Similar corn cutters have been made by various man- 
ufacturers of late years and have proved quite satisfac- 
tory, although they require more hand labor than the corn 
harvesters and do not leave the corn tied up and in as 
convenient shape for loading on the wagons as these do. 
It is also necessary to use care with the sledge type of 
corn cutter, as numerous cases are on record where both 
men and horses have been injured by getting in front of 
the knives, which project from the sides. 




'////iniww'^ 




Fig, 27. Lozu-dozun rack for hauling fodder corn. 

A low-down rack for hauling corn from the field is 
shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 27). It has 
been used for some years past at the Wisconsin Station, 
and is a great convenience in handling corn, saving both 
labor and time. These racks not only dispense with a 
man upon the wagon when loading, but they materially 
lessen the labor of the man who takes the corn from the 
ground, for it is only the top of the load which needs to 
be raised shoulder-high; again, when it comes to unload- 
ing, the man can stand on the floor or ground and simply 
draw the corn toward him and lay it upon the table of the 



152 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

cutter, without stooping over and without raising the corn 
up to again throw it down. A plank that can easily be 
hitched on behind the truck will prove convenient for 
loading, so that the loader can pick up his armful and, 
walking up the plank, can drop it without much exertion. 
If wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be 
shocked in the field to protect it as much as possible from 
rain before hauling it to the cutter. 



Siloing Corn, "Ears and All, 



» 



The best practice in putting corn into the silo, is to 
silo the corn plant "ears and all," without previously husk- 
ing it. If thie ear corn is not needed for hogs and horses, 
or for seed purposes, this practice is in the line of econ- 
omy, as it saves the expense of husking, cribbing, shelling 
and grinding the ear corn. The possible loss of food ma- 
terials sustained in siloing the ear corn speaks against 
the practice, but this is very small, and more than coun- 
terbalanced by the advantages gained by this method of 
procedure. In proof of this statement we will refer to an 
extended feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Pro- 
fessor Woll at the Wisconsin Station in 1891. 

Corresponding- rows of a large corn field were siloed, 
"ears and all," and without ears, the ears belonging to 
the latter lot being carefully saved and air-dried. The 
total yield of silage with ears in it (whole-corn silage) 
was 59,495 pounds; of silage without ears (stover silage) 
34,496 pounds and of ear corn, 10,511 pounds. The dry 
matter content of the lots obtained by the two methods 
of treatment was, in whole-corn silage, 19,950 pounds; 
in stover silage 9,484 pounds, and in ear corn, 9,122 
pounds, or 18,606 pounds of dry matter in the stover 
silage and ear corn combined. This shows a loss of 1,344 
pounds of dry matter, or nearly 7 per cent., sustained by 
handling the fodder and ear corn separately instead of 
siloing the corn "ears and all." 

In feeding the two kinds of silage against each other, 



THE FILLING PROCESS. 153 

adding the dry ear corn to the stover silage, it was found 
that seventeen tons of whole-corn silage fed to sixteen 
cows produced somewhat better results than fourteen tons 
of stover silage, and more than two tons of dry ear corn, 
both kinds of silage having been supplemented by the 
same quantities of hay and grain feed. The yield of milk 
from the cows was 4 per cent, higher on the whole corn 
silage ration than on the stover silage ration, and the 
yield of fat was 6.9 per cent, higher on the same ration. 
It would seem then that the cheapest and best way of pre- 
serving the corn crop for feeding purposes, at least in case 
of milch cows, is to fill it directly into the silo; the greater 
portion of the corn may be cut and siloed when the corn 
is in the roasting-ear stage, and the corn plat which is to 
furnish ear corn may be left in the field until the corn 
is fully matured, when it may be husked, and the stalks 
and leaves may be filled into the silo on top of the corn 
siloed "ears and all." This will then need some heavy 
weighting or one or two applications of water on top of 
the corn, to insure a good quality of silage from the rather 
dry stalks. (See page 1'52.) 

An experiment similar to the preceding one, conducted 
at the Vermont Station, in which the product from six 
acres of land was fed to dairy cows, gave similar results. 
We are justified in concluding, therefore, that husking, 
shelling, and grinding the corn (processes that may cost 
more than a quarter of the market value of the meal) are 
labor and expense more than wasted, since the cows do 
better on the corn siloed "ears and all" than on that siloed 
after the ears were picked off and fed ground with it. 

The Filling Process. 

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the silo, 
has still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous mass, so 
that it will pack well in the silo and will be convenient 
for feeding. 

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and 
all, may be run through an "Ohio" Ensilage Cutter. 



154 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

The corn is unloaded on the table of the cutter and 
run through the machine, after which the carrier or 
blower elevates it and delivers it into the silo. The length 
of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different farm- 
ers and with the variety of corn to be siloed. Care should 
be taken in this respect, however, for the length of cut 
has much to do with the quality of the silage. EJxperience 
has demonstrated that the half inch cut, or even shorter, 
gives most satisfactory results. The corn will pack and 
settle better in the silo, the finer it is cut, thus better ex- 
cluding the air and at the same time increasing the ca- 
pacity of silo, some say 20 to 25 percent. Cattle will 
also eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and the 
majority of farmers filling silos now practice such cutting. 

The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge 
of the silo at all times, thus keeping it high and packing 
it there, letting the center take care of itself. The weight 
of the silage packs it in the center. 

If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to 
keep a man or boy in the silo while it is being filled, to 
level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners; 
if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will be thrown 
farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come 
nearest the discharge; as a result the corn will not settle 
evenly, and the different layers of silage will have a dif- 
ferent feeding value. Several simple devices, such as 
funnel-shaped hoppers, adjustable board suspended from 
roof, etc., will suggest themselves for receiving the silage 
from the carrier and directing it where desired in the 
silo. With the blower machines, the new flexible, silo tube 
shown in the back of this book, is a most happy solution 
of an otherwise disagreeable job. At the same time it in- 
sures perfectly equal distribution of the cut feed; the 
leaves, moisture and heavier parts being always uniformly 
mixed as cut. 



PROPER DISTRIBUTION OF CUT MATERIAL. 155 

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material 
in the Silo. 

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has 
been elevated or blown into the silo is a matter which 
should have proper attention at the time of filling. If 
the cut material is allowed to drop all in one place and 
then have no further attention the constant falling of the 
material in one place will tend to make that portion solid 
while the outside will not be so, and besides the pieces of 
ears and heavier portions will continually roll to the out- 
side. As a result the silage cannot settle evenly, and good 
results will not follow. As the filling progresses, the cut 
material should be leveled off and the common and most 
successful practice is to keep the material higher at the 
sides than at the center and do all the tramping at and 
close to the sides, where the friction of the walls tends 
to prevent as rapid settling as takes place at the center. 
For this reason, no tramping, or at least, as little as 
possible, should be done, except close to the walls. lu 
modern deep silos, the weight of the silage accomplishes 
more than would any amount of tramping, and all that is 
necessary, is to see that the cut material is rather evenly 
distributed, for better results in feeding, and to assist the 
settling by some tramping at the sides. With the new silo 
tube, this distribution is really reduced to the mere guid- 
ing of the mouth of the tube by hand. 

Size of Cutter and Power Required. 

The "Ohio" Cutters are made in a variety of sizes, 
suited to all requirements. 

The cutter used in filling the silo should have ample 
capacity to give satisfaction and do the work rapidly; a 
rather large cutter is therefore better than a cutter that 
is barely large enough. The size required depends on 
the rapidity with which it is desired to fill the silo and 
on the power at hand. Where a steam engine is avail- 
able it is the cheapest power for filling a large silo, as the 



156 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

work can then be finished in a few days. For small farms 
and silos, where an engine is not to be had, a two or 
three-horse tread-power may be used, but it will be found 
that the work of filling will progress much more slowly 
than when steam power, such as is suitable for threshing, 
is used. The filling may be done as rapidly as possible, 
or may be done slowly, and no harm will result if, for 
any reason the work be interrupted for some time. More 
silage can be put into a silo with slow, than with rapid 
filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can, of 
course, fill his silo and then refill after the silage has^ 
settled, so that the silo will be nearly full after all settling 
has taken place. 

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an 
outfit, he will wish to do the filling as rapidly as possible, 
as a matter of economy. It is, therefore, desirable for 
the farmer to own his own machine, and that being the 
case, a smaller machine will suffice; whereas if the 
machine be hired the largest possible capacity will be 
desired. 

This has created a demand for various sizes of cutters, 
and to meet this demand, the "Ohio" Ensilage Cutters 
are made in six sizes, with knives eleven to twenty-two 
inches long, and with Metal Bucket Elevators, or Blower 
Elevators, as desired, adaptable to any height of silo. 
The traveling feed table (supplied on all but the smallest 
size "Ohio" Ensilage Cutter, No. 11) and the bull-dog grip 
feed rolls are valuable features and practically do away 
with the labor of feeding the heavy green corn, besides 
increasing the capacity of the machines about one-third, 
on account of its being so much easier to get a large 
amount of material past the feed rolls. 

The Metal Bucket Elevator is the older style of ele- 
vator. It delivers the cut silage corn into the silo through 
a window or opening at the top and must be longer than 
the silo is high as it is necessary to run the carrier at 
somewhat of an angle. The length of the carrier required 
may be obtained by adding about 40 per cent, to the per- 



SIZE OP CUTTER REQUIRED. 157 

pendicular height from the ground to the window; thus for 
a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is required, and for a 30 ft. 
silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will be necessary. 

The metal Bucket Elevators for the "Ohio" Cutters 
are made both straight away and with swivel base, which 
enables the operator to set the cutter in the desired posi- 
tion, and as the swivel base gives the carrier a range of 
adjustment extending over nearly a half circle, the carrier 
can be run directly to the window, or in the case of two 
silos setting side by side, both can be filled with one set- 
ting of the cutter. 

The No. 12 "Ohio" Monarch Cutter, with carrier (the 
number of the machine indicates the length of knives and 
width of throat), has a capacity of 8 to 12 tons of green 
corn per hour, and requires 4 to 6 horse-power to run it to 
full capacity, although it can be operated successfully 
with less power, by feeding in proportion to the power at 
hand. The Blower machines require more power to oper- 
ate successfully than do the Carrier machines. The 14, 
17, 19 and 22 inch "Ohio" Cutters have correspondingly 
larger capacities, and in the case of the larger sizes the 
amount that can be cut is only limited by the amount that 
can be conveniently gotten to them. The largest sizes 
can be run by an ordinary threshing engine. These ma- 
chines have been on the market for upwards of twenty- 
five years, and have been brought to a wonderful state 
of perfection. For durability, ease and reliability of oper- 
ation, capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the 
most practical means of filling the silo. 

The Nos. 14, 17 and 19 "Ohio" Cutters are the sizes 
mostly in use by farmers and dairymen, and the travel- 
ing feed table, which is long enough to receive a bundle 
of corn, is a most valuable feature, and has become almost 
universal on the "Ohio" machines used for silo filling. It 
decreases the labor of feeding and makes any size of ma- 
chine about equal in capacity to the next size larger with- 
out it. 

The newer and more modern method of elevating fod- 



158 



HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 



der in filling silos, is the use of the Blower Elevator which 
blows the cut fodder into the silo through a continuous 
pipe. Blower Elevators (see illustration of "Ohio" Blower 
Cutter, Fig. 29) have been in use to an increasing extent 
for several years, and today there is absolutely no doubt 
as to their superiority for elevating the material. Where 
sufficient power is available there is no difficulty in ele- 
vating the cut fodder into the highest silos. 

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat more 
power than the old style Carrier, they have numerous 




Fig, 29. This illustration sJioivs a No. 19 Monarch Self-Feed Blower Cutter 
filling three forty-foot silos, 500 tons capacity, at the Ingleside Farms, 
Thorndale, Chester county, Pa. At the time the photograph was taken, 
this machine had just replaced an exploded fly-whccl cutter which nearly 
killed one of the workmen. 



BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 159 

advantages over the latter, and the majority of machines 
now being sold are equipped with Blowers. We mention 
below some of the features that have served to bring the 
"Ohio" Monarch Blowers to the notice and favor of farm- 
ers and dairymen so rapidly. 

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down or 
moved, as all that is necessary is to remove the pipe, 
(which is in sections of various lengths from four to 
ten feet as desired), which requires but a few moments. 
This operation requires but little time as compared with 
that occupied in setting up or taking apart the chain 
elevator. 

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing 
all of the corn in the silo and there is no litter around 
the machine when the filling is finished. 

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn 
is made much finer, and it therefore packs closer in the 
silo, thus enabling more fodder to be stored in the silo; 
the corn is all knocked off of the pieces of cobs and dis- 
tributed through the cut fodder better, and the pieces of 
the heavy butts and joints are also split and knocked to 
pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a fine condition 
so that it is eaten up cleaner by the stock. 

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more 
durable than the chain elevator. 

Many have been skeptical as to the ability of the Blower 
to elevate the material as rapidly as the "Ohio" Machines 
cut it. This proposition, however, has been proven en- 
tirely feasible and successful, and there positively need 
be no fear on this point if the following points are kept 
in mind. 

The machine must be run at the proper speed as 
recommended by the manufacturers. A fan can only 
create a suflicient blast by running fast enough to force 
the air through the pipe at the rate of nine or ten thou- 
sand feet per minute. Green corn is heavy stuff and re- 
quires a strong current of air to carry it through 30 or 
40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 30 tons per hour, ft 



160 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

will be seen, therefore, that unless proper speed be main- 
tained there will be no elevation of the material what- 
ever. If the power at hand is not sufficient to maintain 
full speed when the cutters are fed to full capacity, all that 
is necessary is to feed the machine accordingly, in other 
words, to cut down the capacity to the point where full 
speed can be maintained, as is necessary with other kinds 
of machinery, such as threshing machines, grinding mills, 
etc. 

In setting a Blower Machine it is necessary to have 
the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that the 
current of air within the pipe will lift the material. This 
is especially true where the pipe is long, say 20 feet or 
more, because the green fodder being heavy will settle 
down onto the lower side of the pipe, if this has much 
slant, and the wind blast will pass over the fodder, thus 
allowing it to lodge, whereas if the pipe be perpendicular, 
or nearly so, no stoppage will occur. It is also necessary 
to see that full speed is attained before beginning to 
feed the machine, and also to stop the feeding while the 
machine is in full motion so that the Blower will have 
an opportunity to clear itself before shutting off the power. 

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent back 
pressure, as the tremendous volume of air forced into the 
silo with the cut fodder must have some means of escape. 

If these few points are kept in mind, there can be no 
possible doubt as to the successful operation of the Blower 
Elevator; and, as previously stated, there is absolutely no 
doubt as to their superiority for elevating silage. Scores 
of "Ohio" Blower Machines are in successful use in all 
parts of the country. 

(N. B. At the end of this volume will be found illus- 
trations and descriptions of several sizes and styles of 
"Ohio" Cutters, which the reader can refer to, in addition 
to the illustrations given here.) 

Danger from Carbonic-Acid Poisoning in Silos. — As 
soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic-acid 



COVERING THE SILOED FODDER. 161 

gas is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight the gas will 
gradually accumulate directly above the fodder, since it 
is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the con- 
ditions given. If a man or an animal goes down into this 
atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is 
the case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well. 
Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred in filling 
silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more 
days, and men have then gone into the silo to tramp down 
the cut corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left 
open when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus venti- 
lated, carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since the 
gas will then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic acid 
being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordi- 
nary air, it cannot be directly observed, but may be readily 
detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the 
light goes out when lowered into the silo there is an 
accumulation of carbonic acid in it, and a person should 
open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going 
down into it. 

After the silage is made and the temperature in the 
silo has gone down considerably, there is no further evo- 
lution of carbonic acid, and therefore no danger in enter- 
ing the silo even if this has been shut up tight. The 
maximum evolution of carbonic acid, and consequently the 
danger of carbonic-acid poisoning comes during or directly 
after the filling of the silo. 

Covering the Siloed Fodder, 

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have been 
recommended and tried, with varying success. The orig- 
inal method was to put boards on top of the fodder, and 
to weight them heavily by means of a foot layer of dirt 
or sand, or with stone. The weighting having later on 
been done away with, lighter material, as straw, hay, 
sawdust, etc., was substituted for the stone or sand. 
Building paper was often placed over the fodder, and 
boards on top of the paper. There is no special advan- 
11 



162 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

tage derived from the use ol building-paper, and it is now 
never used. Many farmers run some corn stalks, or green 
husked fodder, through the cutter after the fodder is all 
in. In the South, cotton-seed hulls are easily obtained, 
and form a cheap and most efficient cover. 

None of these materials or any other recommended for 
the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of 
silage, some four to six inches of the top layer being 
usually spoilt. Occasionally this spoilt silage may not be 
so bad but that cattle or hogs will eat it up nearly clean, 
but it is at best very poor food, and should not be used by 
any farmer who cares for the quality of his products. The 
wet or green materials are better for cover than dry sub- 
stances, since they prevent evaporation of water from the 
top layer; when this is dry air will be admitted to the fod- 
der below, thus making it possible for putrefactive bacteria 
and molds to continue the destructive work begun by the 
fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the silage to 
spoil. 

Use of Water in Filling Silos. — During late years the 
practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has 
been followed in a large number of cases. The surface 
is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water 
added. In applying the method at the Wisconsin Station, 
Prof. King, a few days after the completion of the filling 
of the silo, added water to the fodder corn at the rate of 
about ten pounds per square foot of surface, repeating the 
same process about ten days afterwards. By this method 
a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple 
of inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent 
evaporation of water from the corn below, and will pre- 
serve all but a few inches at the top. The method can be 
recommended in cases where the corn or clover goes into 
the silo in a rather dry condition, on account of drouth 
or extreme hot weather, so as not to pack sufficiently by 
its own weight. While weighting of the siloed fodder has 
long since been done away with, it may still prove ad- 
vantageous to resort to it where very dry fodder is siloed, 



CLOVER SILAGE. J(i3 

or in case of shallow silos. Under ordinary conditions 
neither weighting nor application of water should be nec- 
essary. 

There is only one way in which all of the silage can 
be preserved intact, viz., by beginning to feed the silage 
within a few days after the silo has been filled. This 
method is now practiced by many farmers, especially 
dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall 
pastures. 

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the silo- 
ing system is brought to perfection, provided the silo 
structure is air-tight, and constructed so as to admit of 
no unnecessary losses of nutrients. Under these con- 
ditions there is a very considerable saving of food ma- 
terials over silage made in poorly constructed silos, or 
over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have al- 
ready seen. 

Clover Silage, 

Green clover may be siloed whole or cut, but the 
latei* method is to be recommended. The clover should 
not be left to wilt between cutting and siloing, and the 
silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unneces- 
sary losses by fermentation. 

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory 
silo crops; ordinary red or medium clover is most used 
in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover; 
the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and 
may therefore be siloed later than these. Alfalfa, or 
lucerne, is, as previously stated, often siloed in the West. 
Under the conditions present there it will generally pro- 
duce much larger yields than corn, and, preserved in 
a silo, will furnish a large supply of most valuable feed. 
Prof. Neale and others recommended the use of scarlet 
clover for summer silage, for Delaware and States under 
similar climatic conditions. 

Says a Canadian dairy farmer: "If we were asked 
for our opinion as to what will most help the average 



164 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. - 

dairy farmer, I think we would reply: Knowledge of a 
balanced ration, the Babcock test, and a summer silo; 
then varying the feed of individual animals according 
to capacity; as shown by scales and close observation." 

Clover for Summer Silage. 

By filling the clover into the silo at midsummer, or be- 
fore, space is utilized that would otherwise be empty; 
the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding in 
the latter part of the summer and during the fall, when 
the pastures are apt to run short. This makes it pos- 
sible to keep a larger number of stock on the farm than 
can be the case if pastures alone are to be relied upon, and 
thus greatly facilitates intensive farming. Now that stave 
silos of any size may be easily and cheaply put up, it 
will be found very convenient at least on dairy farms, 
to keep a small separate silo for making clover silage 
that may be fed out during the summer, or at any time 
simultaneously with the feeding of corn silage. This 
extra silo may also be used for the siloing of odd lots of 
forage that may happen to be available (see page 60). 
It is a good plan in siloing clover or other comparatively 
light crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn 
on top that will weight down the mass below, and secure 
a more thorough packing and thereby also a better quality 
of silage. 

In several instances where there has still been a 
supply of clover silage in the silo, green corn has been 
filled in on top of the clover, and the latter has been 
sealed and thus preserved for a number of years. Corn 
silage once settled and "sealed," will also keep perhaps 
indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo, without 
deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or palatability. 

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says: 
"Silage will keep as long as the silo is not opened, and 
has been kept in good condition for seven years. This 
is a special advantage for Kansas dairymen, as In years 
ef heavy crops the surplus can be stored in silos for 



FREEZING OF SILAGE. 165 

years of drouth, making all years good crop years for 
silo dairymen." 

Freezing of Silages 

Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of 
annoyance and loss to farmers in Northern States, and 
in the future, with the progress of the stave silo, we 
shall most likely hear more about frozen silage than we 
have in the past. As stated in the discussion of the stave 
silo, however, the freezing of silage must be considered 
an inconvenience rather than a positive detriment; when 
the silage is thawed out it is eaten with the same relish 
by stock as is silage that has never been frozen, and 
apparently with equally good results. If frozen silage 
is not fed out directly after thawed it will spoil and soon 
become unfit to be used for cattle food; thawed silage 
will spoil much sooner than ordinary silage that has not 
been frozen and thawed out. There is no evidence that 
silage which has been frozen and slowly thawed out, is 
less palatable or nutritious than silage of the same kind 
which has been kept free from frost. 

"Freezing of silage," says Iowa State College Bulletin 
No. 100, "is due to loss of heat; first, through the silo 
wall; and second, to the air in contact with the feeding 
surface. 

"It may be impartially said that, as far as the pre- 
vention of freezing is concerned, the stave, stone, single 
wall brick and concrete silos are of about equal merit. 

"The second cause of freezing mentioned, that is, the 
loss of heat from the silage surface, is too often the cause 
of unnecessary freezing. If air above the silage is confined, 
no serious loss of heat can possibly take place. When the 
top of the silo is open and a free circulation of air permit- 
ted, it is almost impossible to prevent the surface from 
freezing in severe weather. A personal investigation of 
silos in cold weather proved conclusively that those pro- 
vided with a tight roof did not contain nearly as much 
frozen silage as those left open." 



166 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. 

The diflQculty of the freezing of the silage may be 
avoided by checking the ventilation in the silo and by 
leaving the door to the silo carefully closed in severe 
weather. If the top layer of silage freezes some of the 
warm silage may be mixed with the frozen silage an 
hour or two before feeding time, and all the silage will 
then be found in good condition when fed out. A layer 
of straw may be kept as a cover over the silage; this 
will prevent it from freezing, and is easily cleared off 
when silage is to be taken out. 

Silage From Frosted Corn, 

Experiments were conducted at the Vermont Station 
in October, 1906, with immature corn, mature corn not 
frosted, and mature corn frosted hard or frozen and the 
leaves whitened. No ill results were noticeable in the 
butter product. It was found that "the effect of frosting 
corn, and still more of freezing it, appears very slightly 
to have been to depress its feeding value when made into 
silage. " The testimony seemed in favor of running frost 
risks in order to gain a greater maturity, rather than to 
silo the immature product. 

Steamed Silage, 

While fermentation in silage causes a small unavoid- 
able loss, it develops flavors and softens the plant tissue. 
Excessive fermentation causes high acid. Steam has been 
used with much success to check it in such cases, says 
Farmer's Bulletin No. 316. It is piped at the bottom and 
middle of the silo until the whole mass is hot. 

Steaming seems beneficial and silage so treated is con- 
sidered much better than that which is not steamed. Stall 
fed animals have eaten from 50 to 75 lbs. of silage per day. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm ani- 
mals, dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats, 
swine, and even poultry. It should never be fed as sole 
roughage to any one of these classes of stock, however, 
but always in connection with some dry roughage. The 
nearer maturity the corn is when cut for the silo the more 
silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well 
to avoid feeding it excessively. 

The silo should always be emptied from the top in 
horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to 
expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It 
should be fed out sufficiently rapidly to avoid spoiling 
of the silage; in ordinary Northern winter weather a 
layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily. 

Silage for Milch Cows. 

Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. Woll 
in his Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the 
silo in this country, the dairymen, more than any other 
class of farmers, have been among the most enthusiastic 
siloists, and up to the present time a larger number of 
silos are found in dairy districts than in any other re- 
gions where animal husbandry is a prominent industry. 
As with other farm animals, cows fed silage should re- 
ceive other roughage in the shape of corn stalks, hay, 
etc. The quantities of silage fed should not exceed forty, 
or at outside, fifty pounds per day per head. It is 
possible that a maximum allowance of only 25 or 30 
pounds per head daily is to be preferred where the 
keeping quality of the milk is an important considera- 
tion, especially if the silage was made from somewhat 

167 



168 



HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 



immature corn. The silage may be given in one or two 
feeds daily, and, in case of cows in milk, always after 
milking, and not before or during same, as the peculiar 
silage odor may, in the latter case, in our experience 
reappear in the milk. (See below.) 

Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secre- 
tion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows 
will usually drop considerably in milk toward spring, if 
fed on djy feed, causing a loss of milk through the 
whole remaining portion of the lactation period. If silage 
is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow 
of milk before turning out to grass, and the cows will 
be able to keep up well in milk until late in summer, 




Fig, 30, Silage Truck. 

or early in the fall, when they are dried up prior to 
calving. Silage has a similar effect on the milk secre- 
tion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well- 
matured corn, is more like these feeds than any other 
feed the farmer can produce. 

The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes 
been objected to when the milk was intended for the 
manufacture of certain kinds of cheese, or of condensed 
milk, and there are instances where such factories have 
enjoined their patrons from feeding silage to their cows. 
When the latter is properly prepared and properly fed. 



SILAGE FOR "CERTIFIED MILK." 169 

there can be no foundation whatever for this injunction; 
it has been repeatedly demonstrated that Swiss cheese 
of superior quality can be made from the milk of silage- 
fed cows, and condensing factories among whose pat- 
rons silage is fed have been able to manufacture a 
superior product. The quality of the silage made during 
the first dozen years of silo experience in this country 
was very poor, being sour and often spoilt in large 
quantities, and, what may have been still more importaat, 
it was sometimes fed in an injudicious manna- 
being made to subsist on this feed as sole roughage. 
Under these conditions it is only natural that the quality 
of the milk should be impaired, and that manufacturers 
preferred to entirely prohibit the use of it rather than 
to teach their patrons to follow proper methods in the 
making and feeding of silage. There is an abundance of 
evidence at hand showing that good silage fed in moder- 
ate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both 
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of but- 
ter experts, silage not only does not injure the flavor of 
butter, but better-flavored butter is produced by judicious 
silage feeding than can be made from dry feed. 

Silage in the production of "certified milk." — In an- 
swer to a question raised whether there is any objection 
made to the milk when the cows are fed silage, Mr. H. B. 
Gurler, the well-known Illinois dairyman, whose certifled 
milk sent to the Paris Exposition in 1900, kept sweet 
for one month without having any preservatives added 
to it, and was awarded a gold medal, gave the following 
information: "No, there is not. I have had persons who 
knew I was feeding silage imagine they could taste it. I 
caught one of the leading Chicago doctors a while ago. 
He imagined that he could taste silage in the milk, and 
I was not feeding it at all. When I flrst went into the 
business I did not feed any silage to the cows from 
which the certifled milk was produced. I knew it was 
all right for butter making, as I had made butter from 
the milk of cows fed with silage, and sent it to New 



170 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

York in competition with butter made from dry food, and 
it proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first 
winter I had samples sent down to my family in De 
Kalb from the stable where we fed silage and from the 
stable where we were making the certified milk for Chi- 
cago, and in which we fed no silage. I presume I made 
one hundred comparative tests that winter of the milk 
from these two stables. My wife and daughter could 
not tell the difference between the two samples. In the 
large majority of cases they would select the milk from 
the cows fed silage as the sweeter milk." 

It will serve as an illustration of the general use of 
silage among progressive dairymen in our country, to 
state that of one hundred farmers furnishing the feed 
rations fed to their dairy cows, in an investigation of this 
subject conducted by Prof. Woll in 1894, sixty-four were 
feeding silage to their stock, this feed being used a 
larger number of times than any other single cattle food, 
wheat bran only excepted. 

An interesting experiment as to the effect of silage 
on milk was recently conducted by the Illinois Station, 
where a herd of 40 cows was divided, one lot being fed 
40 lbs. of silage a day, the other clover hay and grain. 
Samples of milk were submitted to 372 persons for an 
opinion. Sixty per cent, preferred the silage-fed milk, 29 
per cent, non-silage-fed milk, while 11 per cent, had no 
choice. They were able to distinguish between the two 
kinds, but found nothing objectionable about either. The 
summary of the test was that when silage imparts a bad 
or disagreeable flavor to milk produced from it, almost 
invariably the cause is that the silage has not been fed 
properly, or that spoiled silage has been used. 

It has been contended that the acetic acid in ensilage 
has a tendency to make milk sour more quickly. A user 
of ensilage for 14 years, took a gallon of milk from a cow 
fed ensilage for 42 days and a gallon from another that 
had received no ensilage and set them side by side in a 
room having a temperature of 40 degrees. Both gallons 
of milk began to sour at the same time. 



SILAGE RATIONS FOR MILCH COWS. 171 

The combination in which corn silage will be used 
in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local 
conditions; it may be said in general that it should be 
supplemented by a fair proportion of nitrogenous feeds 
like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, 
gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may be of 
some help to our readers a number of balanced rations 
or such as are near enough balanced to produce good 
results at the pail, are presented below. 

Silage Rations for Milch Cows. 

No. 1. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 

lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 
No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; corn 

meal, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 3 lbs.; 

oil meal, 1 lb. 
No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover and timothy mixed, 

10 lbs.; wheat shorts, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.; corn 

and cob meal, 3 lbs. 
No. 4. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; hay, 

4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 3 lbs.; ground 

oats, 3 lbs. 
No. '5. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover hay, 10 lbs.; oat feed, 

4 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs. 

No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; corn stalks, 5 lbs.; oat straw, 

5 lbs.; dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs.; wheat shorts, 

4 lbs. 

No. 7. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 3 

lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; oats, 3 lbs. 
No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn stover, 8 lbs.; wheat 

bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 
No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; clover and timothy hay, 15 

lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 

2 lbs.; cotton seed meal, 1 lb. 
No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs.; corn stover, 10 lbs.; hay, 

5 lbs.; wheat shorts, 2 lbs.; oat feed, 4 lbs.; corn meal, 
2 lbs. 



172 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

No. 11. Clover silage, 30 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 10 lbs.; 

oat straw, 4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 

2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs. 
No. 12. Clover silage, 40 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; roots, 20 lbs.; 

corn meal, 4 lbs.; ground oats, 4 lbs. 

The preceding rations are only intended as approxi- 
mate guides in feeding dairy cows. EJvery dairy farmer 
knows that there are hardly two cows that will act in 
exactly the same manner and will need exactly the same 
amount of feed. It is then important to adapt the quan- 
tities and kinds of feed given to the special needs of the 
different cows; one cow will fatten on corn meal, where 
another will be able to eat and make good use of two 
or three quarts of it. In the same way some cows will 
eat more roughage than others and do equally well on it 
as those that get more of the food in the form of more 
concentrated and highly digestible feeding stuffs. The 
only safe rule to go by is to feed according to the 
different needs of the cows; to study each cow and find 
out how much food she can take care of without laying 
on flesh, and how she responds to the feeding of foods 
of different character, like wheat bran and corn meal, 
for instance. The specimen rations given in the preced- 
ing can, therefore, only be used to show the average 
amount of common feeds which a good dairy cow can 
take in and give proper returns for. 

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy cattle 
has increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. Few owners 
of stock of this class, who have properly-built silos, and 
well-preserved silage, would discard silage as an adjunct 
to feeding. Silage certainly promotes milk flow. One 
great argument in favor of its use lies in the cheapness 
of production per ton, and the ability to store and secure 
a palatable, nutritious food in weather conditions that 
would seriously injure hay or dry fodder. 

There is one important point that owners of milk 
cattle should bear in mind, and that is when the silo is 
first opened only a small feed should be given. In chang- 



SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 173 

ing from grass or dry feed to silage, if a regular full 
ration is given, the silage will perhaps slightly affect 
the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if the change 
is from dry feed it may cause too great activity of the 
bowels. 

Silage for Beef Cattle, 

Silage may be fed with advantage to beef cattle, in 
moderate quantities, up to about forty pounds a day. 
The health of the animals and the quality of the beef 
produced on moderate silage feeding, leave nothing to 
be wished for. If the silage is made from immature 
corn care must be taken not to feed too large quan- 
tities at the start, and to feed carefully, so as not to make 
the animals scour. Prof. Henry says in regard to the 
value of silage for fattening steers: "As with roots, 
silage makes the carcass watery and soft to the touch. 
Some have considered this a disadvantage, but is it not 
a desirable condition in the fattening steer? Corn and 
roughage produce a hard dry carcass, and corn burns out 
the digestive tract in the shortest possible time. With 
silage and roots, digestion certainly must be more nearly 
normal, and its profitable action longer continued. The 
tissues of the body are juicy, and the whole system must 
be in just that condition which permits rapid fattening. 
While believing in a large use of silage in the preliminary 
stages, and its continuance during most of the fattening 
period, I would recommend that gradually more dry feed 
be substituted as the period advances, in order that the 
flesh may become more solid. Used in this way, I believe 
silage will become an important aid in steer feeding in 
many sections of the country. Results from Canada, Wis- 
consin, and Texas experiment stations show the broad 
adoption of this food for stock feeding purposes. 

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full 
grown ones, with the same restrictions arid precautions 
as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas 
Station suggests, that corn silage is not a fit food for 



174 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

breeding bulls, unless fed a few pounds only as a relish; 
fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to lose virility and 
become slow and uncertain breeders. 

Fuller information on this subject is given in Chapter 
III of this book, entitled, "The Use of Silage in Beef Pro- 
duction." 

Silage for Horses, 

When fed in small quantities, not to exceed fifteen 
pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It 
should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at 
first and gradually increased as the animals become 
accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed 
with cut straw, two-thirds of straw and one-third of 
silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this mixed feed. 
Some horses object to silage at first on account of its 
peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on 
top of the silage and feeding only very small amounts 
to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. Other 
horses take it willingly from the beginning. Horses 
not working may be fed larger quantities than work 
horses, but in neither case should the silage form more 
than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the horses. 
Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the 
spring in better condition than when fed almost any other 
food. 

Professor Cook says in regard to silage as a horse 
food: "It has been suggested by even men of high 
scientific attainments that silage is pre-eminently the 
food for cattle and not for other farm stock. This is 
certainly a mistake. If we raise fall colts, which I find 
very profitable, then silage is just what we need, and 
will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though 
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares 
in fiirst-class trim for the hard summer's work. I find 
silage just as good for young colts and other horses." 

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder 
gives his experience in regard to silage for horses as 



^ SILAGE FOR HORSES. 175 

follows: "Last year we had nearly two hundred horses, 
including Clydesdales, standard-bred trotters, and Shet- 
land ponies. They were wintered entirely upon straw 
and corn silage, and this in face of the fact that I had 
read a long article in a prominent horse journal caution- 
ing farmers from the use of silage, and citing instances 
where many animals had died, and brood mares had 
aborted from the liberal use of corn silage. 

"Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent, 
our stallions and brood mares, as well as all the young 
stock, we fed two full rations of silage daily, and one 
liberal ration of wheat or oat straw. The result with 
our brood mares was most phenomenal, for we now 
have to represent every mare that was in foal on the 
farm, a weanling, strong and vigorous, and apparently 
right in every way, with only one exception, where the 
colt was lost by accident. Of course there may have been 
something in the season more favorable than usual, but 
this was the first year in my experience when every colt 
dropped on the farm was saved." 

The following experience as to the value of silage 
as a food for horses and other farm animals comes from 
the Ohio Station: "Our silo was planned and filled with 
special reference to our dairy stock, but after opening 
the silo we decided to try feeding the silage to our horses, 
calves and hogs. The result was eminently satisfactory. 
We did not find a cow, calf, horse, colt, or hog that re- 
fused to eat, or that did not eat it with apparent relish, 
not only for a few days, but for full two months. The 
horses were given one feed of twenty pounds each per 
day in place of the usual amount of hay, for the period 
above named, and it was certainly a benefit. Their appe- 
tites were sharpened, and the healthfulness of the food 
was further manifest in the new coat of hair which came 
with the usual spring shedding. The coat was glossy, 
the skin loose, and the general appearance was that of 
horses running upon pasture." 

Doctor Bailey states that silage has as good an effect 



176 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

on work and driving horses as an occasional feed of 
carrots or other roots, and Rew informs us that there 
is a demand for silage in London and other English 
cities, especially for omnibus, cab, and tram horses. Ac- 
cording to the testimony of Mr. H. J. Elwes, the cart 
horses fed silage "looked in better condition and brighter 
in their coats than usual at this time of the year." 

From experiments conducted at Virginia Station, Prof. 
Nourse concluded that "it would appear that silage 
would make a good roughage for horses, when used in 
connection with hay or stover or grain, but that these 
animals should become accustomed to the food by de- 
grees, and that this is as important as when changing 
from old to new corn, or from hay to grass." 

What has been said about silage as a food for horses 
will most likely apply equally well to mules, although 
only very limited experience has so far been gained with 
silage for this class of farm animals. 

Silage for Sheep. 

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep 
men, says Prof. Woll in his Book on Silage; sheep do 
well on it, and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the 
spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and vigor- 
ous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well 
adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; for 
fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the 
silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of 
pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds 
per head. Prof. Cook reports as follows in regard to the 
value of silage for sheep: "I have fed ensilage liberally 
to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased 
with the results. I make ensilage half the daily ration, 
the other half being corn stalks or timothy hay, with 
bran or oats. The sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly 
I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino 
ewes. Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last 
spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 177 

the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main 
cause. It is positively proved that ensilage is a most 
valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our 
domestic animals." 

Mr. J. S. W!oodward, a well-known New York farmer 
and Farmers' Institute Worker, who has made a specialty 
of early-lamb raising, says in an address before the New 
York Agricultural Society, regarding silage as a feed for 
lambs: "In order to be successful in raising fine lambs 
it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have 
plenty of succulent food. Nothing can supply the de- 
ficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are 
good. Turnips, rutabagas, mangolds are all good. Corn « 
silage is excellent. Could 1 have my choice I would pre- 
fer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage 
alone for succulent food I would give four pounds per 
hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, 
at the forenoon feed; but when feeding both silage and 
roots I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the 
afternoon." 

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning silage 
for sheep: "Of late years we have annually put up 
3,200 tons of corn ensilage, and this has been the prin- 
cipal ration of all the live stock at Springdale Farm, our 
Shropshire sheep having been maintained on a ration 
of ensilage night and morning, coupled with a small 
ration of clover hay in the middle of the day. This we 
found to fully meet the requirements of our fiock until 
after lambing, from which time forward we of course 
added liberal rations of wheat bran, oats, and old-process 
linseed meal to the ewes, with a view of increasing their 
fiow of milk and bringing forward the lambs in the most 
vigorous possible conditions. Our fiock-master was some- 
what anxious until after the lambs dropped,, but now 
that he saved 196 lambs from 122 ewes, his face is 
wreathed in smiles, and he gives the ensilage system the 
strongest endorsement." Mr. Turner states that, after 
becoming accustomed to the silage, his horses, cattle, and 

12 



178 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

sheep would all push their noses down through the hay, 
if there was silage at the bottom of the manger, and 
little or no hay would be eaten until the silage was first 
taken. 

O. C. Gregg, superintendent of farmers' institutes for 
Minnesota, has been conducting some experiments on 
feeding ensilage to sheep. He gives the result in one of 
our American exchanges as follows: 

"We made preparations to use ensilage in the feeding 
of our flock during the past winter. We have now some 
facts to report which seem to verify the thought that we 
had — that ensilage will enter as a large factor in the fu- 
ture production of good mutton in Minnesota. Our en- 
silage has been fed (beginning gradually) in troughs. 
These troughs can be readily cleaned by being turned 
over, that the center piece prevents any chance of the 
sheep jumping over them and so soiling the food. The 
troughs are also wide enough so that two rows of sheep 
will feed from them without undue crowding. We have 
enough of these troughs, so that when the flock is feeding, 
each sheep has a reasonable space to feed quietly. This 
in itself is an advantage that every feeder of stock will 
understand. 

"As a result so far, the sheep are in better condition 
than we have ever had them before, and, in fact, to use 
an English term, they are in "blooming" condition. We 
do not consider that they are any too fleshy, but in a 
good, bright, healthy state. The wool is evidently of 
good quality, and the flock will shear heavily. The sheep 
are high grade Shropshires. Good shepherds have esti- 
mated that they will furnish between seven and eight 
pounds of wool per head. There are a few young ewes 
in- the flock which we do not consider in this estimate. 
The ewes are beautiful to look at, square on the back, 
bright of eye, active in appearance, and when the time 
comes for the feeding of ensilage they are anxious for 
their feed, and in case there is any lapse in time, they 
soon make their wants known by bleating about the 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 179 

troughs. The flock has been fed ensilage and good hay- 
in the morning, with oat hay in reasonable abundance in 
the afternoon or evening. We have about ninety head of 
breeding ewes, including the lambs referred to, and they 
have been fed two grain sacks full of ensilage each day. 
This is not by any means heavy feeding, and it might be 
increased in quantity. This is a matter which we must 
learn from experience. We have fed the ensilage with 
care, not knowing what the results would be if fed heav- 
ily. Next winter we plan to add ensilage to the feed for 
our fattening flock. From the little experience we have 
had so far, we think the effects will be good, and that we 
shall be able to improve the quality of mutton by adding 
ensilage to the other feeds that we shall use in finishing 
our fattening flock." 

The following interesting experience illustrating the 
value of silage for sheep-feeding is given by Mr. William 
Woods, a celebrated English breeder of Hampshire- 
Downs: "Last year, in August, I found myself with a 
flock of some 1,200 Hampshire-Down ewes, and about 
twelve or fourteen acres of swedes, on a farm of 4,000 
acres, and these were all the roots there were to feed 
them and their lambs during the winter. Knowing how 
we should suffer from want of milk after lambing in Jan- 
uary and February, I thought I would try (which no 
doubt has often been tried elsewhere, though not in this 
district) the effect of ensilage on ewes after lambing, 
having heard by hearsay that it increased the milk of 
cows nearly 30 per cent. I at once set to work to ir- 
rigate what water meadows I could spare, and in the 
month of October had a crop of grass that, had it been 
possible to make it into hay, would have made a ton of 
hay to the acre. I bought from the Aylesbury Dairy Com- 
pany one of their Johnson's ensilage rick presses, and 
put some seventy or eighty tons of cut meadow grass 
under pressure. It must, however, be borne in mind 
that second cut water meadow grass is some of the 
poorest stuff that is consumed, either green or in hay. 



180 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

and, therefore, my ensilage was not as good, and conse- 
quently not as favorable a trial, as if it had been made 
of better material. 

"In January, when well into lambing, I opened the 
stack, and began to feed it to the ewes that had lambed. 
At first they hardly cared to eat it, but by degrees they 
seemed to like it more. They had a night and morning 
meal of best sainfoin hay, and a small lot of ensilage 
with the cake given at midday. After three weeks' trial 
what the shepherd observed was this: That when best 
sainfoin hay worth i4 a ton, was put up in the cages, and 
ensilage in the troughs at the same time, half the sheep 
would go to the hay and half to the ensilage, although 
there was sufficient accommodation for the whole flock 
at either sort, and we now observe that with the ewes 
that are most constant to the ensilage, their lambs are 
nourished better than the others. We have not lost a 
single lamb from scours, and have some 470 lambs from 
380 ewes lambed as yet, which I think proves the value 
of the experiment. As soon as the stuff arrives in carts 
the ewes are crazy for it, and almost come over the 
hurdles, so eager are they to get at this new sort of 
feed, which, as I have stated, is only water meadow 
grass ensilage." 

Silage for Swine, 

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a 
food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavor- 
able reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried 
feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On the 
other hand, a number of hog-raisers have had good suc- 
cess with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It 
is possible that the differences in the quality of the 
silage and of the methods of feeding practiced explain 
the diversity of opinions formed concerning silage as 
hog food. According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Cur- 
tiss, the great American authority on the swine industry, 
states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations 



SILAGE FOR POULTRY. 181 

of our swine. Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in re- 
gard to silage for hogs: "We have fed our sows, about 
twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of 
ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought 
up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very bene- 
ficial to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows 
that are nursing the young, equal to when they are run- 
ning on clover. We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed, 
they become more robust, and take to nursing much 
sooner and better than they did in winters when fed on 
an exclusively dry diet. We also feed it to our sheep. 
To sixty head we put out about six bushels of ensilage." 
Dr. Bailey, the author of "The Book on Ensilage," fed 
large hogs ten pounds of silage, and one pound of wheat 
bran, with good results; the cost of the ration did not 
exceed 2 cents per day. He states that clover silage 
would be excellent, and would require no additional grain. 
Young pigs are exceedingly fond of silage. Feeding ex- 
periments conducted at Virginia Experiment Station show 
that silage is an economical maintenance feed for hogs, 
when fed in connection with corn, but not when fed alone. 
In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to 
feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing 
it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds. 
The diet of the hog should be largely made up of easily 
digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can 
only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to ex- 
ceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in case 
of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed 
with care to brood sows, keeping the system in order, 
and producing a good fiow of milk. 

Silage for Poultry, 

But little experience is at hand as to the use of 
silage as a poultry food; some farmers, however, are 
feeding a little silage to their poultry with good success. 
Only small quantities should of course be fed, and it is 
beneficial as a stimulant and a regulator, as much as 



182 HOW TO PEED SILAGE. 

food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in Orange Judd 
Farmer, concerning his experience in making and feed- 
ing silage to fowls. Devices similar to that here de- 
scribed have repeatedly been explained in the agricultural 
press: "Clover and corn silage is one of the best winter 
foods for poultry raisers. Let me tell j^ou how to build 
four silos for $1. Buy four coal-oil barrels at the drug 
store, burn them out on the inside, and take the heads 
out. Go to the clover field when the second crop of the 
small June clover is in bloom, and cut one-half to three- 
eighths of an inch in length, also one-half ton of sweet 
corn, and run this through the feed cutter. Put into the 
barrel a layer of clover, then a layer of corn. Having 
done this, take a common building jack-screw and press 
the silage down as firmly as possible. Then put on this 
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and keep 
on putting in clover and corn until you get the barrel 
as full as will admit of the cover being put back. After 
your four barrel silos are filled, roll them out beside the 
barn, and cover them with horse manure, allowing them 
to remain there thirty days. Then put them away, cov- 
ering with cut straw or hay. When the cold, chilling 
winds of December come, open one of these 'poultrymen's 
silos,' take about twenty pounds for one hundred hens, 
add equal parts of potatoes, ground oats, and winter rye, 
place same in a kettle and bring to a boiling state. Feed 
warm in the morning and the result will be that you will 
be enabled to market seven or eight dozen eggs per day 
from one hundred hens through the winter, when eggs 
bring good returns." 

Additional Testimony as to the Value 
of Silage, 

Corn Silage compared with root crops. — Root crops 
are not grown to any large extent in this country, but 
occasionally an old-country farmer is met with who grows 
roots for his stock, because his father did so, and his 
grandfather and great-grandfather before him. This is 



CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO ROOTS. 183 

what a well-known English writer, R. Henry Rew, says 
as to the comparative value of roots and silage, from the 
standpoint of an English farmer: 

"The root crop has, for about a century and a half, 
formed the keystone of arable farming; yet it is the root 
crop whose position is most boldly challenged by silage. 
No doubt roots are expensive — say £10 per acre as the 
cost of producing an ordinary crop of turnips — and pre- 
carious, as the experience of the winter of 1887-8 has 
once more been notably exemplified in many parts of the 
country. In a suggestive article in the Farming World 
Almanac for 1888, Mr. Primrose McConnell discusses the 
question: 'Are Turnips a Necessary Crop?' and sums 
up his answer in the following definite conclusion: 

" 'Everything, in short, is against the use of roots, 
either as a cheap and desirable food for any kind of live 
stock, as a crop suited for the fallow break, which cleans 
the land at little outlay, or as one which preserves or 
increases the fertility of the soil.' 

"If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restricted 
ensilage comes in usually to assist the farmer in supply- 
ing their place. * * * When one comes to compare 
the cultivation of silage crops with that of roots, there 
are two essential points in favor of the former. One is 
their smaller expense, and the other is their practical 
certainty. The farmer who makes silage can make cer- 
tain of his winter store of food, whereas he who has only 
his root crop may find himself left in the lurch at a time 
when there is little chance of making other provision." 

We have accurate information as to the yields and 
cost of production of roots and corh silage in this country 
from a number of American Experiment Stations. This 
shows that the tonnage of green or succulent feed per 
acre is not materially different in case of the two crops, 
generally speaking. But when the quantities of dry mat- 
ter harvested in the crop are considered, the corn has 
been found to yield about twice as much as the ordinary 
root crops. According to data published by the Pennsyl- 



184 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

vania Station, the cost of an acre of beets in the pit 
amounts to about $56, and of an acre of corn in the silo 
about $21, only half the quantities of food materials ob- 
tained, and at more than double the cost. 

When the feeding of these two crops has been de- 
termined, as has been the case in numerous trials at ex- 
periment stations, it has been found that the dry matter 
of beets certainly has no higher, and in many cases has 
been found to have a lower value than that of corn 
silage; the general conclusion to be drawn, therefore, is 
that ''beets cost more to grow, harvest and store, yield 
less per acre, and produce at best no more and no better 
milk or other farm product than corn silage." 

Corn silage compared with iiay. A ton and a half of 
hay per acre is generally considered a good average 
crop in humid regions. Since hay contains about 86 per 
cent, dry matter, a crop of ll^ tons means 2,580 pounds 
of dry matter. Against this yield we have yields of 5,000 
to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice to three and a 
half times as much, in case of fodder corn. An average 
crop of green fodder will weigh twelve tons of Northern 
varieties and eighteen tons of Southern varieties. Esti- 
mating the percentage of dry matter in the former at 30 
per cent., and in the latter at 20 per cent.', we shall have in 
either case a yield of 7,200 pounds of dry matter. If we 
allow for 10 per cent of loss of dry matter in the silo there 
is still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be credited to the 
corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of course, 
higher than that of growing hay, but by no means suffi- 
ciently so to offset the larger yields. It is a fact gen- 
erally conceded by all who have given the subject any 
study, that the hay crop is the most expensive crop used 
for the feeding of our farm animals. 

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Experi- 
ment Station (England) said, respecting the relative value 
of hay and (grass) silage: "It is probable that when 
both (i. e., hay and silage) are of the very best qualit^j' 
that can be made, if part of the grass is cut and placed 



CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO HAY. 185 

in the silo, and another part is secured in the stack 
without rain, one might prove as good food as the other. 
But it must be borne in mind that while the produc- 
tion of good hay is a matter of uncertainty — from the 
elements of success being beyond the control of the 
farmer — good silage, by taking proper precautions, can 
be made with certainty." 

A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay 
will be mentioned in the following: 

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the 
New Hampshire Station, the silage ration, containing 
16.45 pounds of digestible matter, produced 21.0 pounds of 
milk, and the hay ration, containing 16.83 pounds digest- 
ible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk; calculating the 
quantities of milk produced by 100 pounds of digestible 
matter in either case, we find on the silage ration, 127.7 
pounds of milk, on the hay ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 
per cent, in favor of the silage ration. 

In a feeding experiment with miilch cows at the 
Maine Station, in which silage likewise was compared 
with hay, the addition of silage to the ration resulted 
in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, which 
was not caused by an increase in the digestible food 
materials eaten, but which must have been due either to 
the superior value of the -nutriments of the silage over 
those of the hay or to the general psychological effect of 
feeding a great variety of foods. 8.8 pounds of silage 
proved to be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds of hay 
(mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible material be- 
ing the same in the two cases 

In another experiment, conducted at the same station, 
where silage was compared with hay for steers, a pound 
of digestible matter from the corn silage produced some- 
what more growth than a pound of digestible matter from 
timothy hay. The difference was small, however, amount- 
ing in the case of the last two periods, where the more 



186 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. ^ 

accurate comparison is possible, to an increased growth 
of only 15 pounds of live weight for eacli ton of silage fed. 
Corn Silage compared with fodder corn. The cost of 
production is the same for the green fodder up to the 
time of siloing, in case of both systems; as against the 
expense of siloing the crop comes that of shocking, and 
later on, placing the fodder under shelter in the field- 
curing process; further husking, cribbing, and grinding 
the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since this is the 
most economical way of handling the crop, and the only 
way in which it can be fully utilized so as to be of as 
great value as possible for dry fodder. Professor King 
found the cost of placing corn in the silo to be 58.6 cents 
per ton, on the average for five "Wisconsin farms, or, add- 
ing to this amount, interest and taxes on the silo invest- 
ment, and insurance and maintenance of silo per ton, 
73.2 cents. The expense of shocking and sheltering the 
cured fodder, and later cutting the same, will greatly 
exceed that of siloing the crop; to obtain the full value 
in feeding the ear corn, it must, furthermore, in most- 
cases, be ground, costing ten cents or more a bushel of 
70 lbs. The advantage is, therefore, decidedly with the 
siloed fodder in economy of handling, as well as in the 
cost of production. 

The comparative feeding value of corn silage and 
fodder corn has been determined in a large number of 
trials at different experiment stations. The earlier ones 
of these experiments were made with only a couple of 
animals each, and no reliance can, therefore, be placed 
on the results obtained in any single experiment. In the 
later experiments a large number of cows have been in- 
cluded, and these have been continued for sufficiently 
long time to show what the animals could do on each feed. 

A few experiments illustrating the value of silage as 
a stock food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two lots 
of steers on a silage experiment. One lot of four steers 
was fed on corn silage exclusively, and another similar 



SILAGE AS A STOCK FOOD. 187 

lot corn silage with shelled corn. The former lot gained 
222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the latter lot 535 
pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per day per head for the 
silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day for the silage 
and shelled-corn-fed steers. Prof. Emery fed corn silage 
and cotton-seed meal, in the proportion of eight to one, 
to two three-year-old steers, at the North Carolina Ex- 
periment Station, The gain made during thirty-two days 
was, for one steer, 78 pounds, and for the other, 85.5 
pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head per day. 

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. Hiram 
Smith, in 1888 gave the following testimony concerning 
the value of silage for milch cows: "My silo was opened 
December 1st, and thirty pounds of ensilage was fed to 
each of the ninety cows for the night's feed, or 2,700 
pounds per day, until March 10, one hundred days, or a 
total of 135 tons, leaving sufficient ensilage to last until 
May 10th. The thirty pounds took and well filled the 
place of ten pounds of good hay. Had hay heen fed for 
the night's feed in place of the ensilage, it would have 
required 900 pounds per day for the ninety cows, or a 
total for the one hundred days of forty-five tons. 

"It would have required, in the year 1887, forty-five 
acres of meadow to have produced the hay, which, if 
bought or sold, would have amounted to $14.00 per acre. 
The 135 tons of ensilage were produced on Sy2 acres of 
land, and had a feeding value, as compared with hay, 
of $74.11 per acre." As the conclusion of the whole mat- 
ter, Mr. Smith stated that "three cows can be wintered 
seven months on one acre producing lb' tons of ensilage, 
while it required two acres of meadow in the same year 
of 1887 to winter one cow, with the same amount of ground 
feed in both cases." 

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural 
College, gives a powerful plea for silage in the following 
simple statement: "The single fact that the product of 
^bout two acres of ground kept our herd of fifty cattle 



188 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. 

five weeks with no other feed of the fodder kind, except 
a small ration of corn fodder given at noon, speaks whole 
cyclopedias for the possibilities of Kansas fields when 
the silo is called in as an adjunct." 

In conclusion. We will bring our discussions of the 
silo and its importance in American agriculture, to a 
close by quoting the opinions of a few recognized lead- 
ers on agricultural matters as to the value of silo and 
silage. 

Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard's Dairyman, 
and a noted dairy lecturer: "For dairying of all the year 
around the silo is almost indispensable." 

Prof. Hill, the director of Vermont Experiment Sta- 
tion: "It was long ago clearly shown that the most eco- 
nomical farm-grown carbohydrates raised in New England 
are derived from the corn plant, and that they are more 
economically preserved for cattle feeding in the silo than 
in any other way." 

H. C. Wallace, editor Creamery Gazette: "While not 
an absolute necessity, the silo is a great convenience in 
the winter, and in times of protracted dryness almost a 
necessity in summer." 

Prof. Carlyle, of Wisconsin Agricultural College: "A 
silo is a great labor-saving device for preserving the cheap- 
est green fodder in the best form." 

C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers' Institutes in 
Wisconsin, and a well-known lecturer and authority on 
dairy topics: "A farmer can keep cows profitably with- 
out a silo, but he can make more profit with one, because 
he can keep his cows with less expense and they will 
produce more." 

Prof. Deane, of Ontario Agricultural College: "The 
silo is becoming a greater necessity every year in On- 
tario." 

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world 
wherever the silo is in use, the evidence points In favor 
of silage, there no longer being an argument against it. 



I 



ECONOMY IN PRODUCTION OF FEED MATERIALS 189 

in connection with the dairy, and especially in latitudes 
where corn can be grown. 

Economy in production of feed materials means in- 
creased profits. Competition establishes the price at which 
the farmer and dairyman must market his products; but 
by the study of approved and modern methods the farmer 
can regulate his profits. 



CHAPTER X. 

A FEEDERS' GUIDE. 

It has been thought best, in order to increase the 
usefulness of this little book to practical farmers, to 
add to the specific information given in the preceding as 
to the making and feeding of silage, a brief general outline 
of the main principles that should govern the feeding 
of farm animals. This will include a statement of the 
character of the various components of the feeding stuffs 
used for the nutrition of farm stock, with tables of 
composition, and a glossary of scientific agricultural 
terms often met with in agricultural papers, experiment 
station reports, and similar publications. Many of these 
terms are used constantly in discussions of agricultural 
topics, and unless the farmer has a fairly clear idea of 
their meaning the discussions will often be of no value 
to him. The information given in the following is put 
in as plain and simple language as possible, and only 
such facts are given as are considered of fundamental 
importance to the feeding of farm stock. 

Composition of the Animal Body, 

The most important components of the animal body 
are: water, ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly de- 
scribe these components: 

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal 
body than any other substance. It makes up for about 
a third to nearly two-thirds of the live weight of farm 
animals. The fatter the animal is the less water is found 
in its body. We may consider 50 per cent, of the body 
weight a general average for the water content of the 
body of farm animals. When it comes to animal products 
used for food purposes, there are wide variations in the 
water content; from between 80 and 90 per cent, in case 
of milk, to between 40 and 60 per cent, in meat of various 
kinds, about 12 per cent, in butter, and less than 10 per 
cent, in fat salt pork. 

Ash OP mineral matter is that portion of the animal 
body which remains behind when the body is burned. 
The bones of animals contain large quantities of min- 

190 



COMPOSITION OP FEEDING STUFFS. 191 

eral matter, while the muscles and other parts of the 
hody contain only small amounts; it must not be con- 
cluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor im- 
portance for this reason; both the young and full grown 
animals require a constant supply of ash materials in 
their food; if the food should not contain a certain mini- 
mum amount of ash materials, and of various compounds 
contained therein which are essential to life, the animal 
will turn sick very soon, and if the deficiency is not 
made up will die, no matter how much of other food com- 
ponents is supplied. As both ash and water are either 
present in sufficient quantities in feeding stuffs, or can 
be easily supplied, the feeder does not ordinarily need 
to give much thought to these components in the selec- 
tion of foods for his stock. 

Protein is not the name of any single substance, but 
for a large group of very complex substances that have 
certain characteristics in common, the more important 
of which is that they all contain the element nitrogen. 
Hence these substances are also known as nitrogenous 
components. The most important protein substances 
found in the animal body are: lean meat, fxbrin, all kinds 
of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in fact the 
entire working machinery of the animal body. The casein 
of milk and the white of the egg are, furthermore, protein 
substances. It is evident from the enumeration made that 
protein is to the animal body what the word implies, the 
most important, the first. 

Fat is a familiar component of the animal body; it 
is distributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, but 
is found deposited on certain organs, or under the skin, 
in thick layers, in the case of very fat animals. 

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air; 
it must manufacture its body substances and products 
from the food it eats, hence the next subject for consider- 
ation should be: 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs, 

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our farm 
animals are composed of similar compounds as those 
which are found in the body of the animal itself, although 
the components in the two cases are rarely identical, 
but can be distinguished from each other in most cases 
by certain chemical reactions. The animal body through 
its vital functions has the faculty of changing the various 
food substances which it finds in the food In such a way 



192 A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 

that they are in many instances different from any sub- 
stances found in the vegetable world. 

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally 
enumerated and taken into account in ordinary chemical 
fodder analysis, or in discussions of feeding problems 
are Water (or Moisture, as it is often called), ash ma- 
terials, fat (or ether-extract), protein, crude fiber, and 
nitrogen-free extract; the two components last given are 
sometimes grouped together under the name Carbohy- 
drates. These components are in nearly all cases mix- 
tures of substances that possess certain properties in 
common; and as the mixtures are often made up of 
different components, or of the same components in vary- 
ing proportions, it follows that even if a substance is 
given in a table of composition of feeding stuffs, in the 
same quantities in case of two different feeds, these 
feeds do not necessarily have the same food value as far 
as this component alone is concerned. 

Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs, 
whether succulent or apparently dry. Green fodders con- 
tain from 60 to 90 per cent, of water, according tp the 
stage of maturity of the fodder; root crops contain be- 
tween 80 and 90 per cent., while hay of different kinds, 
straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have water con- 
tents ranging between 15 and 8 per cent. 

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues 
and feeding stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, or 
in refuse feeds made up from the outer covering of grains 
or other seeds, viz., from 4 to 8 per cent.; less in the 
cereals and green fodder, and least of all in roots. A 
fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding 
young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited 
amount of foods low in ash should be fed to such animals; 
refuse feed from starch and glucose factories which have 
been treated with large quantities of water should, there- 
fore, be fed with care in such cases. 

Fat or ether-extract is the portion of the feeding 
stuff which is dissolved by ether or benzine. It is found 
in large quantities in the oil-bearing seeds, more than 
one-third of these being composed of oil or fat; the oil- 
mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially cotton 
seed meal and old-process linseed meal; other feeds rich 
in fat are gluten meal and feed, grano-gluten and rice 
meal. The ether-extract of the coarse fodders contains 
considerable wax, resins, and other substances which have 
a low feeding value, while that of the seeds and by-products 
from these are essentially pure fat or oil. 



COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 193 

Protein or flesh forming substances are considered of 
the highest importance in feeding animals, because they 
supply the material required for building up the tissues 
of the body, and for maintaining these under the wear 
caused by the vital functions. Ordinarily the feed ra- 
tions of most farmers are deficient in protein since most 
of the farm-grown foods (not including clover, alfalfa, 
peas and similar crops) contain only small amounts of 
these substances. The feeding stuffs r;^hest in protein 
are, among the coarse foods, those already mentioned; 
among the concentrated foods: cottonseed meal, lin- 
seed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, grano-gluten, buck- 
wheat, middlings, and the flour-mill, brewery, and distillery 
refuse feeds. The protein substances are also called nitro- 
genous bodies for the reasons given above, and the other 
organic (combustible) components in the feeding stuffs 
are spoken of as non-nitrogenous substances. The non- 
nitrogenous components of feeding stuffs, therefore, include 
fat and the two following groups, crude fiber and nitrogen- 
free extract. 

Crude fiber is the framework of the plants, forming 
the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible 
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger pro- 
portion present thereof the less valuable the food is. We 
find, accordingly, that the fodders containing most crude 
fiber are the cheapest foods and least prized among feed- 
ers, as, e. g., straw of the various cereal and seed-pro- 
ducing crops, corncobs, oats and rice hulls, cotton-seed 
hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. These feeding stuffs, 
in so far as they can be considered as such, contain as 
a rule between 35 and 50 per cent, of crude fiber. Con- 
centrated feeding stuffs, on the other hand, often con- 
tain less than 5 per cent, of crude fiber, and in the cereals 
only a couple of per cent, of crude fiber are found. 

Nitrogen-free extract is a general name for all that 
is left of the organic matter of plants and fodders after 
deducting the preceding group of compounds. It In- 
cludes some of the most valuable constituents of feeding 
stuffs, which make up the largest bulk of the food ma- 
terials; first in importance among these constituentg are 
starch and sugar, and, in addition, a number of less well- 
known substances of similar compositions, like pentosans, 
gums, organic acids, etc. Together with crude fiber the 
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of substances known 
as carbohydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is 
heat-producing substances, since this is one important 
function which they fill; they are not as valuable for 

13 



194 A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 

this purpose, pound for pound, as fat, which also is often 
used for the purpose by the animal organism, but on ac- 
count of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates 
are found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of 
food materials second to none in importance. Since it 
has been found that fat will produce about ly^ times as 
much heat as carbohydrates on combustion, the two com- 
ponents are often considered together in tables of com- 
position of feeding stuffs and discussion of the feeding 
value of different foods, the per cent, of fat being multi- 
plied by 214 in such cases, and added to the per cent, of 
carbohydrates (i. e., crude fiber plus nitrogen-free extract) 
in the foods. As this renders comparisons much easier, 
and simplifies discussions for the beginner, we shall adopt 
this plan in the tables and discussions given in this Guide. 

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being 
oxidized or burned in the body, but also furnish ma- 
terials for energy used in muscular action, whether this 
be voluntary or involuntary. They also in all probability 
are largely used for the purpose of storing fatty tissue 
in the body of fattening animals, or of other animals that 
are fed an excess of nutrients above what is required 
for the production of the necessary body heat and mus- 
cular force. 

To summarize briefly the use of the various food 
elements: Protein is required for building up muscular 
tissue, and to supply the breaking down and waste of 
nitrogenous components constantly taking place in the 
living body. If fed in excess of this requirement it is 
used for production of heat and energy. The non-nitro- 
genous organic components, i. e., carbohydrates and fat, 
furnish material for supply of heat and muscular exer- 
tion, as well as for the production of fat in the body or 
in the milk, in case of milch cows giving milk. 

Digestibility of foods. Only a certain portion of a 
feeding stuff is of actual value to the animal, viz., the 
portion which the digestive juices of the animal can 
render soluble, and thus bring into a condition in which 
the system can make the use of it called for; this digesti- 
ble portion ranges from half or less to more tham 96 
per cent, in case of highly digeatible foods. The rest is 
simply ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., the lesi of 
digestible matter a food contain!, the more the value 
of the digestible portion is reduced. Straw, e. g., is 
found, by means of digestion -experiments, to contain be- 
tween 30 and 40 per cent, of digestible matter in all, but 
it is very doubtful whether an animal can be kept alive 



CLASSIFICATION OP CATTLE POODS. 



195 



for any length of time when fed straw alone. It very- 
likely costs him more effort to extract the digestible 
matter therefrom than the energy this can supply. An 
animal lives on and produces not from what he eats but 
from what he digests. 

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the price of 
different feeding stuffs varies greatly with the locality 
and season, it is impossible to give definite statements 
as to the relative economy which will hold good always; 
it may be said, in general, that the feeding stuffs richest 
in protein are our most costly and at the same time our 
most valuable foods. Experience has shown to a cer- 
tainty that a liberal supply of protein is an advantage 
in feeding most classes of farm animals, so that if such 
feeding stuffs can be obtained at fair prices, it will pay 
to feed them quite extensively, and they must enter into 
all food rations in fair quantities in order that the 
animals may produce as much milk, meat, or other farm 
products, as is necessary to render them profitable to 
their owner. The following statement shows a classifica- 
tion of feeding stuffs which may prove helpful in decid- 
ing upon kinds and amounts of feeds to be purchased 
or fed. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. 



COARSE FEEDS. 



1 

Low in protein. 

High in carbohy- 
drates. 

50 to 65 per cent, 
digestible. 



Medium in pro- 
tein. 

Medium in carbo- 
hydrates. 

55 to 65 per cent, 
digestible. 



Low In protein. 

High in carbohy- 
drates. 

85 to 95 per cent, 
digeitible. 



Hays, straws, 
corn fodder, 
corn Btover, 
silage, cereal 
fodderi. 



Clovers, 
pasture grass, 
vetches, pea 
and bean fod- 
der. 



Carrots, potatoes, 
sugar beets, 
mangolds, tur- 
nips. 



196 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS CONTINUED. 



Very high 

protein 

(above 40 per 

cent.) 


High in pro- 
tein 
(25-40 per ct.) 


Fairly high in 

protein 
(12-25 per ct.) 


Low in 

protein 

(below 12 per 

cent.) 


Dried blood. 


Gluten meal. 


Malt sprouts. 


Wheat. 


Meat scraps. 


Atlas meal. 


Dried 


Barley. 


Cotton-seed 


Linseed meal. 


brewers' 


Oats. 


meal. 


Buckwheat 


grains. 


Rye. 




middlings. 


Gluten feed. 


Corn. 




Buckwheat 


Cow pea. 


Rice polish. 




shorts. 


Pea meal. 


Rice. 




Soja-bean. 


Wheat shorts. 


Hominy 




Grrano-gluten. 


Rye shorts. 


chops. 






Oat shorts. 


Germ meal. 






Wheat mid- 


Oat feeds. 






dlings. 








Wheat bran. 








Low-grade 








flour. 





Feeding Standards. 

Investigations by scientists have brought to light the 
fact that the different classes of farm animals require 
certain amounts of food materials for keeping the body 
functions in regular healthy activity; this is known as 
the maintenance ration of the animal, an allowance of 
feed which will cause him to maintain his live weight 
without either gaining or losing, or producing animal 
products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc. If the animal 
is expected to manufacture these products in addition, 
it is necessary to supply enough extra food to furnish 
materials for this manufacture. The food requirements 
for different purposes have been carefully studied, and 
we know now with a fair amount of accuracy how much 
food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects 
sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods, 
and almost infinite possible combinations of these, it 
would not do to express these requirements in so and 
so many pounds of corn or oats, or wheat bran, but they 
are in all cases expressed in amounts of digestible pro- 
tein, carbohydrates and fat. This enables the feeder to 
supply these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he 



A PRACTICAL FEEDING RATION. 197 

has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards com- 
monly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are 
those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. 
Those standards give, then, the approximate amount of 
dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat 
which the different classes of farm animals should re- 
ceive in their daily food in order to produce maximum 
returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible 
protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good 
results. The proportion of digestible nitrogenous to 
digestible non-nitrogenous food substances therefore be- 
comes important. This proposition is technically known 
as Nutritive Ration, and we speak of wide nutritive ratio, 
when there are six or more times as much digestible 
carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible 
protein, and a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the 
two kinds of food materials is as 1 to 6, or less. 

The feeding standards given in the following tables 
may serve as a fairly accurate guide in determining the 
food requirements of farm animals; and it will be noticed 
that the amounts are per 1,000 pounds live weight, and 
not per head, except as noted in the case of growing 
animals. They should not be looked upon as infallible 
guides, which they are not, for the simple reason that 
different animals differ greatly both in the amounts of 
food that they consume and in the uses which they are 
able to make of the food they eat. The feeding standard 
for milch cows has probably been subjected to the closest 
study by American experiment station workers, and it 
has been found in general that the Wolff-Lehmann stan- 
dard calls for more digestible protein (i. e., a narrower 
nutritive ration) than can be fed with economy in most of 
the dairy sections of our country, at least in the central 
and northwestern states. On basis of investigations con- 
ducted in the early part of the nineties, along this line, 
Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called American 
practical feeding ration, which calls for the following 
amount of digestible food materials in the daily ration of 
a dairy cow of an average weight of 1,000 pounds. 

Digestible protein 2.2 lbs. 

Digestible Carbohydrates. .13.3 lbs. ) carbohydrates-f-fat 

Digestible fat 7 lbs. - x2^/4, 14.9 lbs. 

Total digestive matter. ... .17.1 lbs. ) protein-f carbohy- 

drates-ffatx2%. 
Nutritive ratio 1 : 6.9 



198 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

( WOLFF- LEHM ANN.) 

Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight. 



1. Steers at rest in stall 

^" slightly worked 

" moderately worked 

" heavily worked 

2. Fattening steers, 1st period 

2nd " 

3d " 

3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs. 

16.5 " . 
22 " . 

27.6 " . 

4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

" ftner " 

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs 

6. Fattening sheep, 1st period 

2nd " 

7. Horses lightly worked , 

" moderately worked , 

" heavily worked 

S. Brood sows, with pigs 

.*^. Fatteniaig swine, 1st period 

2nd " 

3d " • 

10. Growing cattle: 

DAIRY BREEDS. 

Avr. Live Weight 
Age, Months. Per Head. 

2- 3 1.54 lbs... 

3- 6 S09 "... 
6-12 507 "... 

12-18 705 "... 

18-24 882 "... 



6 


Nutritive 


go 


o 


(Dig-estible) 


9 


rt 


Substances. 


S 






(d5 


42 
C3 


fl' 


CD 


i 


l> CD 


(/3 


© 


+^ 


TO 


■71 S 


1 • 


o 
u 




X 


3 


P 


dn 


1 ^ 


w 


^ 




0) 


c^ 


u 


r-H 


c8 


■o 


.o 


<o 


ca 


O 


3 


c3 


si 


o 


H 


u 


O 


W 


Eh 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


8.9 


22 


1.4 


10.0 


0.3 


12.1 


25 


2.0 


11.5 


0.5 


14.7 


28 


2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


17.7 


30 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


18.7 


30 


3.0 


14.5 


0.7 


19.2 


26 


2.7 


15.0 


0.7 


19.4 


25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


12.3 


27 2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


14.0 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


16.7 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


18.2 


20 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


12.2 


23 


1.5 


12.5 


0.3 


14.2 


25 ' 2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


19.1 


30 3.0 


18.0 


0.5 


19.2 


26 3.5 


14.0 


0.6 


19.4 


20 i 1.5 


9.5 


0.4 


12.0 


24 2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


14.5 


26 2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


17.7 


22 2.5 


15.5 


0.4 


19.0 


36 4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


31.2 


32 4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


29.2 


25 2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


22.0 


23 4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


21.8 


24 3.0 


12 S 


1.0 


18.2 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


26 


1.8 


12 5 


0.4 


15.3 


26 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


14.2 



1:11.8 
1: 7.7 
1: 6.5 
1: 5.3 

1: 6.5 
1: 5.4 
1: 6.2 

1: 6.7 
1: 6.0 
1: 5.7 
1: 4.5 



9.1 
8.5 



1: 5.6 

1: 5.4 
1: 4.5 

1: 7.0 
1: 6.2 
1: 6.0 

l: 6.6 

1: 5.9 
1: 6.3 
1:'7.0 



1: 4.5 
1: 5.1 
1: 6.8 
1: 7.5 
1: 8.5 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 



199 



FEBDIiN"G STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS — CONTINUED. 








Nutritive 










(Dig-estible) 


01 






ci3 


Substances. 


o 

r^ 


o 




cc 






o 

a 

u 




P3 




u 


p 
a! 


u 




5^ 


> 




.—1 


<s 


oA 


t, 


,_, 


hM 




c« 


'O 


X3 


o 


rt 


;h 




O 




f- 
o3 


^ 


O 


3 




tH 


6 


O 


w 


Eh 


^ 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




11. Growing cattle: 














BEEF BREEDS. 














Az'r. Live Weight 














Age, Months. Per Head. 














2- 3 165 lbs 


23 


4.2 


13.0 


2.0 


20.0 


1:4.2 


3-6 331 " 


24 


3.5 


12.8 


1.5 


19.9 


1:4.7 


6-12 551 ".:.... 


25 


2.5 


13.2 


0.7 


14.4 


1:6.0 


12-18 750 " 


24 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


1:6.8 


18-24 937 " 


24 


1.8 


12.0 


0.4 


14.8 


1:7.2 


12. Growing sheep : 














WOOL BREEDS. 














4- 6 60Jbs 


25 


3.4 


15.4 


0.7 


20.5 


1:5.0 


.'6- 8 75 " 


25 


2.8 


13.8 


0.6 


18.0 


1:5.4 


'7-11 84 " 


23 


2.1 


11.5 


0.5 


14.8 


1:6.0 


11-15 90 " 


22 


1.8 


11.2 


0.4 


14.0 


1:7.0 


15-20 99 ." 


22 


1.5 


10. s 


0.3 


13.0 


1:7.7 


13. Growing sheep: 














MUTTON BREEDS. 














4- 6 66 lbs 


26 


4.4 


15.5 


0.9 


22.1 


1:4.0 


6-8 84 " 


26 


3.5 


15.0 


0.7 


20.2 


1:4.8 


8-11 101 " 


24 


3.0 


14.3 


0.5 


18.5 


1:5.2 


11-15 121 " 


23 


2.2 


12.6 


0.5 


16.0 


1:6.3 


15-20 154 " 


22 


2.0 


12.0 


0.4 


15.0 


1:6.5 


14. Growing swine: 














: iBREEDING ANIMALS. 














2- 3 44 lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


1:4.0 


3-5 99 " 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


30.0 


1:5.0 


5-6 121 " 


32 


3.7 


21.3 


0.4 


26.0 


1:6.0 


6-8 176 " 


2S 


2.S 


18.7 


0.3 


22.2 


1:4.0 


8-12 265 " 


25 


2.1 


15.3 


0.2 


17.9 


1:7.5 


15. Growing fat pigs: 














2-3 44 lbs 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


1:4.0 


3-5 110 " 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


30.0 


1:5.0 


5-6 143 " 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


0.6 


28.0 


1:5.5 


6-8 19S " 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


25.1 


1:6.0 


8-12 287 " 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


22.0 


1:6.4 



200 A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



How to Figure Out Rations, 

We shall use the practical American feeding ration 
as a basis for figuring out the food materials which 
should be supplied a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds; in 
order to insure a maximum and economical production of 
milk and butter fat from her. We shall suppose that a 
farmer has the following foods at his disposal: corn 
silage, mixed timothy and clover hay, and wheat bran; 
and that he has to feed about forty pounds of silage per 
head daily, in order to have it last through the winter and 
spring. We will suppose that he gives his cows in addi- 
tion five pounds of hay and about six pounds of bran. 
If we now look up in the tables given on pages 211 to 
215, the amounts of digestible food components contained 
in the quantities given of these feeds, we shall have: 

Total Digestible Total Nut. 

DryMtr. Pro. Carb. & fat. Dig. Mtr. Ratio. 

40 lbs. corn silage, 10.5 lbs. .48 lbs. 7.1 lbs. 7.58 

5 lbs. mixed hay, 4.2 .22 2.2 2.42 

6 lbs. wheat bran, 5.3 .72 2.8 3.'52 



20.0 1.42 12.1 13.52 1: 8.5 

We notice that the ration as now given contains too 
little total digestible matter, there being a deficit of both 
digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat, it will evidently 
be necessary to supply at least a couple of pounds more 
of some concentrated feed, and preferably of a feed rich 
in protein, since the deficit of this component is propor- 
tionately greater than that of the other components. In 
selecting a certain food to be added and deciding the 
quantities to be fed the cost of different available foods 
must be considered. We will suppose that linseed meal 
can be bought at a reasonable price in this case, and 
will add two pounds thereof to the ration. We then have 
the following amounts of digestible matter in the ration: 

Total Digestible Total Nut. 

Dry Mtr. Pro. Carb. & fat. Dig. Mtr. Ratio. 

Ration as above, 20.0 lbs. 1.42 lbs. 12.1 lbs. 13.25 1:6.4 
2 lbs. oil meal (O.P.) 1.8 .62 1.0 L62 



Total, 21.8 2.04 13.1 16.14 1:6.4 

Amer. prac. feeding ration, 2.2 14.9 17.1 1:6.9 
Wolff-Lehman 

standard, 29.0 2.5 14.1 16.6 1:5.7 



HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. 201 

The new ration is still rather light, both In total and 
digestible food materials; for many cows it might prove 
effective as it is, while for others it would doubtless be 
improved by a further addition of some concentrated food 
medium rich in protein, or if grain feeds are high, of more 
hay or silage. The feeding rations are not intended to be 
used as infallible standards that must be followed blindly, 
nor could they be used as sUch. They are not only meant 
to be approximate gauges by which the farmer may know 
whether the ration which he is feeding is of about such 
a composition and furnishes such amount of important 
food materials are most likely to produce best results, 
cost of feed and returns in products as well as condition 
of animals being all considered. 

In constructing rations according to the above feeding 
standard, several points must be considered besides the 
chemical composition and the digestibility of the feeding 
stuffs; the standard cannot be followed directly without 
regard to bulk and other properties of the fodder; the 
ration must not be too bulky, and still must contain a 
sufficient quantity of roughage to keep up the rumination 
of the animals, in case of cows and sheep, and to secure 
a healthy condition of the animals generally. The local 
market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest impor- 
tance in determining which foods to buy; the conditions 
in the different sections of our great continent differ so 
greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be 
made. Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds 
are the cheapest feeds in the south and in the east, and 
flour-mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the 
cheapest in the northwest. 

The tables given on pages 211 to 215 will be found of 
great assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed 
rations; the tables have been reproduced from a bulletin 
published by the Vermont Experiment Station, and are 
based upon the latest compilations of analyses of feeding 
stuffs. A few rations are given in the following as samples 
of combinations of different kinds of feed with corn silage 
that will produce good results with dairy cows. The 
rations given on page 171 may also be studied to advan- 
tage in making up feed rations with silage for dairy cows. 
The Experiment Stations or other authorities publishing 
the rations are given in all cases. 



202 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Mixtures to be fed with one bushel of silage and hay, 
or with corn stover or hay. 

Massachusetts Experiment Station. 



1 



100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. flour and middlings. 
150 lbs. gluten feed. E 

Mix and feed 7 quarts daily.] 



100 lbs. bran. ^ ^ 

100 lbs. flour middlings.*^ 

100 lbs. gluten or cottonseed meal. 

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. 



100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten meal. 

150 lbs. corn and cob meal. 

lOG lbs. bran. 

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. 



100 lbs. bran or mixed feed. 

150 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 9 quarts daily. 



200 lbs. malt sprouts. 

100 lbs. bran. 

100 lbs. gluten feed. 

Mix and feed 10 to 12qts. daily 



125-lbs. gluten feed. 

100 lbs. corn and cob meal. 

Mix and feed 5 to 6 qts. daily. 



New Jersey Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs. corn silage, 
5 lbs. gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers' grains, 2 lbs. 
wheat bran. 

(2) 35 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 5 lbs. wheat 
bran, 2 lbs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and hominy 
meal. 

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, 2 lbs. malt sprouts, 1 lb. each of cottonseed meal 
and hominy meal. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers' grain, 
4 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

Maryland Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs. silage, 5 
lbs. clover hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings, and 1 lb. gluten 
meal. 

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea 
hay, 3 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal. 

Michigan Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs. silage, 
8 lbs. mixed hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed" meal. 

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn meal, 
4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

(3) 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran, 4 
lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. oil meal. 



GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 203 

(4) 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 10 lbs. bran. 

Kansas Experiment Station: (1) Corn silage 40 lbs., 
10 lbs. prairie hay or millet, 4^4 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cot- 
tonseed meal. 

(-) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs. 
Ijran, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sorghum hay, 3 lbs. 
corn, lYz lbs. bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, l^/^ lbs. cottonseed 
meal. 

(4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. millet, 4 lbs. corn, 1 lb. 
gluten meal, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(5) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2i/^ lbs. 
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, iy2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2^^ lbs. 
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, li/^ lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(GVb) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oats straw, 2 lbs. oats, 
4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(7) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn. 

(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. Kafir 
corn. 

(9) 20 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn, 
3 lbs. bran. 

(10) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn, 
3 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, 1 lb. cottonseed meal. 

Tennessee Experiment Station: 30 lbs. silage, 10 
lbs. clover or cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. of 
corn, 2 lbs. cotton seed meal. 

North Carolina Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs. corn 
silage, 10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay, 
4% lbs. cottonseed meal. 

(3) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat 
bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay. 

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs. field 
peas ground. 

(6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 lbs. 
ground corn, 4 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cottonseed meal (ration 
fed at Biltmore Estate to dairy cows. Silage is fed to 
steers and cows, and corn, peas, teosinte, cow peas, millet 
and crimson clover are used as silage crops. These crops 
are put into the silo in alternate layers. "Will never stop 
using the silo and silage." 

South Carolina: 30 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3 
lbs. cottonseed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

Georgia Experiment Station: 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 
lbs. cow pea hay, 5 lbs. bran. 



•204 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



Ontario Agr. College: 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover 
hay, 8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley. 

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada) : 30 lbs. corn 
silage, 20 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal. 

The criticism may properly be made with a large 
number of the rations given in the preceding, that it is 
only in case of low prices of grain or concentrated feeds 
in general, and with good dairy cows, that it is possible 
to- feed such large quantities of grain profitably as those 
often given. In the central and northwestern states it 
will not pay to feed grain heavily with corn at fifty cents 
a bushel and oats at thirty cents a bushel or more. In 
times of high prices of feeds, it is only in exceptional 
cases that more than six or eight pounds of concentrated 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SILAGE CROPS OF DIFFERENT 
KINDS, IN PER CENT. 













Nitro- 










Crude 


Crude 


g-en 


El her 




Water. 


Ash. 


Protein 


Fibre. 


Free 
Extract 


Extract 


Corn Silage — 














Mature corn 


73.7 


1.6 


2.2 


6.5 


15.1 


.9 


Immature corn .... 


79.1 


1.4 


1.7 


6.0 


11.0 


.8 


Ears removed 


80.7 


1.8 


1.8 


5.6 


9.5 


.6 


Clover silage 


72.0 


2.6 


4.2 


8.4 


11.6 


1.2 


Soja bean silage 


74.2 


2.8 


4.1 


9.7 


6.9 


2.2 


Cow-pea vine silage. . 


79.3 


2.9 


2.7 


6.0 


7.6 


1.5 


Field-pea vine silage. 


50.0 


3.6 


5.9 


13.0 


26.0 


1.6 


Corn cannery refuse- 














husks 


83.8 


.6 


1.4 


5.2 


7.9 


1.1 


Corn cannery refuse- 




cobs 


74.1 
76.8 


.5 
1.3 


1.5 
2.8 


7.9 
6.5 


14.3 
11.3 


1.7 


Pea cannery refuse . . 


1.3 


Sorghum silage 


76.1 


1.1 


.8 


6.4 


15.3 


•1 


Corn-so j a bean silage 


76.0 


2.4 


2.5 


7.2 


11.1 


.8 


Millet-soja bean silage 


79.0 


2.8 


2-8 


7.2 


7.2 


1.0 


Rye silage 


80.8 
85.0 


1.6 
.6 


2.4 

1.2 


5.8 
3.3 


9.2 

8.8 


.3 


Apple pomace silage.. 


1.1 


Cow-pea and soja 














bean mixed 


69.8 


4.5 


3.8 


9.5 


11.1 


1.3 


Corn kernels 


41.3 


1.0 


6.0 


1.5 


46.6 


3.6 


Mixed grasses 














(rowen) 


18.4 
69.8 


7.1 
1.2 


10.1 
6.6 


22.8 
4.7 


36.0 
15.6 


5.7 


Brewers' grain silage. 


2.1 



ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



205 



feeds can be fed with economy per head daily. Some 
few cows can give proper returns for more than this 
quantity of grain even when this is high, but more cows 
will not do so. The farmer should aim to grow protein 
foods like clover, alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as 
practicable, and thus reduce his feed bills. 

The table on preceding page gives actual chemical an- 
alyses of the products mentioned and includes the entire 
100 per cent of the contents and weight. The following table, 
compiled by the Editors of Hoard s Dairyman, Fort Atkin- 
son, Wis., shows the average amount of digestible nutri- 
ents in the more common American fodders, grains and 
by-products, and is the table that should be used in formu- 
lating rations. The tables give the amounts of digestible 
nutrients contained in 100 lbs. in pounds, and the figures 
can, therefore, be taken as per cents in figuring out the 
amount of digestible nutrients in any given amount of 
food material, and it is by such methods that the tables 
given on pages 211 to 215 are obtained. 

Compiled by the editors of Hoard's Dairyman, Fort Atkin- 
son, Wis. 

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN THE 
MORE COMMON AMERICAN FODDERS, GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

(Compiled by the Editors of Hoard's Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis.) 





(A 

OS Q 

Q 


DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 
100 POUNDS. 


NAME OF FEED. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Ether 

Extract, 

(Crude 

Fat.) 


GREEN FODDERS. 

Pasture Grasses, mixed 

Fodder Corn 

Sorghum 

Red Clover 


Lbs. 

20.0 
20.7 
20.6 
29 2 
28 ."2 
1G.4 
24.9 
37.8 
23.4 
14.0 
16.0 
10.2 


Lbs. 
2.5 
1.0 
O.G 
2.9 
3.9 
1.8 
3.. 2 
2.6 
2.1 
1.5 
1.8 
0.6 


Lbs. 

10.2 

11.6 

12 2 

14.' 8 

12.7 

8.7 

11.0 

18.9 

14.1 

8.1 

7.1 

7.3 


Lbs. 

0.5 
0.4 

0.4 
0.7 


Alfalfa 


0.5 


Cow Pea 

Soja Bean 


0.2 
0.5 


Oat Fodder 

Tlye Fodder 


1.0 
0.4 


Rape 

Peas and Oats 

Beet Pulp 


0.2 
0.2 



206 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



NAME OF FEED. 



SILAGE. 

Corn 

Corn, Wisconsin analyses, 

Sorghum 

Red Clover 

Alfalfa 

Cow Pea 

Soja Bean 



DRY FODDERS AND HAY. 

Corn Fodder 

Corn Fodder, Wis. analyses 

Corn Stover 

Sorghum Fodder 

Red Clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley 

Blue Grass 

Cow Pea 

Crab Grass 

Johnson Grass 

Marsh Grass 

Millet 

Oat Hay 

Oat and Pea Hay 

Orchard Grass 

Prairie Grass 

Red Top 

Timothy 

Timothy and Clover 

Vetch 

White Daisy 



STRAW. 



Barley 
Oat... 
Rve... 
Wheat 






Lbs. 

20.9 
26.4 
23.9 
28.0 
27.5 
20.7 
25.8 



71. n 

59.5 
59.7 
84.7 
91.6 
85.2 
78.8 
89.3 
82.4 
87.7 
88.4 
92.3 
91.1 
85.4 
90.1 
87.5 
91.1 
86.8 
85.3 
88.7 
85.0 



85.8 
90.8 
92.9 
90.4 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN 
100 POUNDS. 



Protein 



Lbs. 

0.9 
1.3 
0.6 
2.0 
3.0 
1.5 
2.7 



3.7 

1.7 
1.5 
0.8 

11.0 
0.2 
4.8 

10.8 
5.7 
2.4 
2.4 
4.5 
4.3 
9.2 
4.9 
3.5 
4.8 
2.8 
4.8 

12.9 
3.8 



0.7 
1.2 
0.6 
0.4 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Lbs. 

11.3 

14.0 

14.9 

13.5 

8.5 

8.6 

8.7 



34.6 
40.4 
32.4 
37.3 
35.8 
39.6 
46.6 
37.3 
38.6 
39.7 
47.8 
29.9 
51.7 
46.4 
36.8 
42.3 
41.8 
46.9 
43.4 
39.6 
47.5 
40.7 



H.2 
38.6 
40.6 
36.3 



Ether 

Extract 

(Crude Fat) 



Lbs. 

0.7 
0.7 
0.2 

1.0 
1.9 
0.9 
1.3 



1.2 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
1.7 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
1.1 
1.4 
0.7 
0.9 
1.3 
1.5 
1.2 



1.0 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.2 



0.6 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 



ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



207 







DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
IN 100 POUNDS. 


NAME OF FEED. 


a 
'S 
p 




Ether 
Extract 
(Crude 
Fat.) 


ROOTS AND TUBERS. 

Artichokes 


SLbs.; 

-20.0' 

13 


Lbs. 

■2.0 
1.2 
1.1 
0.8 
1.1 
16 
0.9 
1.0 
1.0 
0.9 

8.7 

15.7 

3.9 

18.6 

7.7 

7.4 

22.0 

7.9 

6.4 

0.4 

7.4 

24.6 

32.1 

20.2 

23.3 

7.5 

5.5 

12.5 

37.2 

0.3 

15.6 

18.3 

20.6 

29.3 

28.2 


Lbs. 
16.8 

8.8 

10.2 

7.8 

5.4 

11.2 

16.3 

8.1 

7.2 

22.2 

65.6 
36.3 
9.3 
37.1 
49.2 
30.4 
33.4 
66.7 
63.0 
52.5 
59.8 
38.8 
41.2 
44.5 
50.7 
55.2 
21.7 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
54.2 
17,1 
32.7 
40.1 


Lbs. 
0.2 


Beets, common 


0.1 


Beets, sugar 


13.5 
U1.4 
I 9.1 
Ml 7 


0.1 


Carrots 


0.2 


Mangels 


0.1 


Parsnips 


0.2 


Potatoes 


.21.1 

11.4 

9.5 

29.0 

89.1 
91.8 
24.3 
89.8 
87.4 
89.5 
87.3 
89.1 
89.0 
89.8 
90.9 
92.0 
88.0 
90.0 
90.0 
88.9 
34.6 
89.7 
91.8 
88.9 
89.7 
85.2 
90.8 
90.8 
89.9 


0.1 


Rutabagas 


0.21 


Turnips 


0.2 


Sweet Potatoes 


0.3 


GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Barley 


E' 

1.6 


Brewers' Grains, dry 


5.1 


Brewers' Grains, wet 


1.4 


Malt Sprouts 


1.7 




1.8 


Buckwheat Bran 


1.9 


Buckwheat Middlings 


5.4 


Corn 


4.3 




3.5 


Corn Cob 


0.3 




4.6 


Atlas Gluten Meal 


11.5 


Gluten Meal 


2.5 


Germ Oil Meal 


8.8 


Gluten Feed 


2.7 


Hominy Chop 


6.8 


Starch Feed, wet 


2.3 


Cotton Seed 


17.3 


Cotton Seed Meal 


8.4 


Cotton Seed Hulls 


1.7 


Cocoanut Meal 


10.5 


Cow Peas 


1.1 


Flax Seed 


29.0 


Oil Meal, old process 

Oil Meal, new process 


7.0 

2.8 







208 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



NAME OF FEED. 



GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

Cleveland Oil Meal 

Kaffir Corn 

Millet 

Oats 

Oat Feed or Shorts 

Oat Dust 

Peas 

Quaker Dairy Feed 

Rye 

Rye Bran 

Wheat 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Middlings 

Wheat Shorts 



<: o 



Lbs. 

89.6 
84.8 
86.0 
89.0 
92.3 
93.5 
89.5 
92.5 
88.4 
88.4 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
88.2 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 
IN 100 POUNDS. 



Lt)8. 

32.1 

7.8 

8.9 

9.2 

12.5 

8.9 

16.8 

9.4 

9.9 

11.5 

10.2 

12.6 

12.8 

12.2 



(D 



Lbs. 

25.1 
57.1 

45.0 
47.3 
46.9 
38.4 
51.8 
50.1 
67.6 
50.3 
692 
38.6 
53.0 
50.0 






Lbs. 

2.6 
2.7 
3.2 
4.2 
2.8 
5.1 
0,7 
3.0 
1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
3.0 
3.4 
3.8 



WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS. 


Kind of Feed. 


One Quart 
Equals 


One Pound 
Equals 


Cotton Seed Meal 


1.4 pounds 

1.1 

1.8 

1.3 

1.4 

0.6 

0.6 

0.5 

0.8 

1.2 

1.7 

1.5 

1.4 

0.5 

1.1 

0.7 

1.9 

0.7 

1.0 

0.7 


0.71 quarts 

0.90 

55 " 


Linseed Meal, old process . . . 
Gluten Meal 


Gluten Feed 


71 " 


Germ Oil Meal 


71 


Brewers* Grains 


170 " 


Malt Sprouts 


170 


Wheat Bran 


2 00 


Wheat Middlings, standard.. 

Wheat Middlings, flour 

Corn Kernels 


1.25 
0.83 
60 


Corn Meal '. . 


70 


Corn and Cob Meal 


0.67 


Corn Bran 


2.00 


Oat Kernels 


0.90 


Oats (ground) 


1.40 


Wheat Kernels 


0.53 


H-O Dairy Feed 


1.43 


Quaker Dairy Feed 

Victor Corn and Oat Feed . , . 


1.00 
1.43 



SOILING CROPS. 



209 



SOILING CROP ADAPTED TO NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND 

STATES. (Lindsey.) 

(For 10 cows' entire soiling.) 



Kind. 



Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover .... 

Grass and ) 
clover') 

Vetch and ) 
oats ) 

Peas and ) 

oats ) 

Barnyard 5 
millet ( 
Sojabean (me- 
dium green) 

Corn \ 

Hungarian. .. . 

Barley and i 

peas 1 



Seeds Per Acre. 



2bu 

2bu 

20 lbs 

Yz bu. red top 
1 pk. timothy 
10 lbs. red clo. 
3 bu. oats. . . . 
50 lbs. vetch. 
50 " 

li^bu. Can'da 
lj4bu. oats . . 

1K2 *; " •• 

1 peck 

1 " 



18 ciuarts 

18 " 

18 " 

Ibu 

1^ bu. peas . 
VA bu. barley 



Time of 
Seeding. 



Sept. 10-15 

" 10-15 

Jul. 15-Aug. 1 

Sept. 

April 20 

" SO 

April 20 

" 30 

May 10 

" 25 

" 20 
" 20 
" 30 

July 15 

Aug. 5 



Area. 



acre 



Time of Cutting. 



May 20 
June 1 - 
June 15 



May 30 
June 15 
- June 25 



June 15 - June 30 



June 25 

July 10 ■ 

June 25 

July 10 
July 25 
Aug. 10 

Aug. 25 - 
Aug. 25 ■ 
Sept. 10 
Sept. 20 

Oct. 1 - 



July 10 

July 20 

• July 10 

July 20 
Aug. 10 
Aug. 20 

Sept. 15 
Sept. 10 

Sept. 20 
Sept. 30 

Oct. 20 



TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING CROPS. 

(Phelps.) 



1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

•■5.' 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 



Kind of Fodder. 



Rye fodder . . . . 
Wheat fodder . 

Clover 

Grass (from 
lands) 



grass 



■Oats and peas 



Hungarian 

Clover rowen (from 3) 
Soja beans (from 3) . . 

Cow peas 

Rowen grass (from 

grass lands) 

Barley and peas 



Amount 

of Seed 

Per Acre. 



21/4 to 3 bu. 
2i/^to3bu. 
20 lbs. 



2 bu. each 
11/^ bu. 



1 bushel 
1 



2 bu. each 



Approxi- 
mate Time 
of Seeding-. 



Sept. 1 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 



April 10 
" 20 
" 30 
June 1 



May 25 
June 5-10 



Aug. 5-10 



Approximate 
Time of Feeding. 



May 10-20 
May 20-June 5 
June 5-15 

June 15-25 
June 25-July 10 
July 10-20 
July 20- Aug. 1 
Aug. 1-10 
Aug. 10-20 
Aug. 20-Sept. 5 
Sept. 5-20 

Sept. 20-30 
Oct. 1-30 



The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and 
regions under approximately similar conditions. 



14 



210 



A FEEDER'S GUIDE. 



COST OF A POUND OF DIGESTIBLE DRY MATTER IN 
DIFFERENT FEEDING STUFFS. 



FEEDS. 



Corn meal 

Cob meal 

Oats 

Provender 

Quaker dairy feed 

H-0 dairy feed 

Corn and oat feed 

Hominy chop 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Mixed (wheat) feed 

Cottonseed meal 

Linseed meal, old process . 
Linseed meal, new process 

Flax meal 

Chicago gluten meal 

Cream gluten meal 

King gluten meal 

Buffalo gluten feed 

Diamond gluten feed 



Cost Per 


Total 


Pound for 


100 Lbs. 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 




Lbs. 


Cents. 


$0.80 


79.5 


1.01 


.78 


71.3 


1.09 


.90 


67.0 


1.34 


.85 


72.3 


1.18 


.85 


60.9 


1.40 


1.00 


63.7 


1.57 


.85 


70.4 


1.21 


.90 


88.8 


1.01 


.85 


57.9 


1.47 


.95 


70.6 


1.35 


.90 


64.8 


1.39 


1.20 


80.3 


1.50 


1.30 


77.1 


1.69 


1.30 


74.5 


1.74 


1.30 


75.5 


1.72 


1.20 


78.9 


1.52 


1.20 


81.1 


1.48 


1.20 


86.7 


1.38 


1.00 


80.1 


1.25 


1.00 


82.3 


1.22 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 211 

IN VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS. 

Note.— These tables save calculations of percentag-es. since the weights 
and contents being- g-iven in pounds, it is oniy necessary to find the kind and 
desired amount of a certain feed, and the table g-ives the exact food contents 
in pounds, as in the first table, 15 lbs. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. 
of dry matter, 0.35 lbs. of protein and 3.11bs. carbohydrates. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



Grasses. 



2Y2 



5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Green Fodders. 



2^ 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Green Fodders. 



2^ 
5 



10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Green Fodders. 



2K' 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



, -.J 

Co ^ 



H 



Pasture Grass, 1:4.8 



0.5 10.06 
1.0 0.12 



2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 



0.23 
0.35 
0.46 

0.58 
0.69 
0.81 
0.92 



0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2 2 
2^8 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 



GreenFodderCorn,1:11.7 



0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
8.3 



0.031 0.3 

0.06 " ' 

0.11 

0.17 

0.22 

0.28 

0.33 

0.39 

0.44 



0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.2 



^ts and Peas 

"0 



1:4.2 



5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.3 
6.4 
7.5 
8.5 



0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 



2.3 

2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 



Corn Silage, 1:14J 
0.4 



0.7 
1.3 
2.6 
3.9 
5.3 
6.6 
7.9 
9.2 
10.5 



0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.18 
0.24 
0.30 
0.36 
0.42 
0.48 



0.8 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.3 
6.2 
7.1 






1 u 

O JO 

:« c3 
Ci5 



Timothy Grass, 1:14.3 



1.0 


0.04 


1.9 


0.08 


3.8 


0.15 


5.8 


0.23 


7.7 


0.30 


9.6 


0.38 


11.5 


0.45 


13.4 


0.53 


15.4 


0.60 



3.2 

4.3 



5.4 
6.4 

7.5 
14.0 



Green OatF odder.1:8.7 
^ 0.5 



0.9 

1.9 

3.8 

5.7 

7.6 

9.5 

11.3 

13.2 

15.1 



0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 

0.48 
0.60 
0.72 
0.84 
0.96 



1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.2 
5.2 
6.2 
7.3 
8.3 



Barley and Peas, 1:3.2 



0.5 


0.07 


1.0 


0.14 


2.1 


0.28 


3.1 


0.42 


4.1 


0.56 


5.2 


0.70 


6.2 


0.84 


7.2 


0.96 


8.2 


1.12 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 



CornStoverSilage, 1:16.6 



0.5 
1.0 
1.9 
2.9 
3.9 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 
7.7 



10.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 



0.3 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 



fig 



1 y 



Ky. Blue Grass, 1:9.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 

2.7 



0.9 
1.8 
3.5 
5.2 

7.0 
T8.7 
10.5 
12.2 
14.0 



0.05' 

o.iol 

0.201 
O.30I 

o.4o; 

o.5o; 

0.60 

0.70 
O.8O: 



4.7 
5.5 
6.4 
7.3 



Green Rye Fodder, 1:7.2 



0.6 
1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 
5.9 
7.0 
8.2 
9.4 



0.05 
0.11 
0.21 
0.32 
0.42 
0.52 
0.63 
0.74 
0.84 



0.4 

0.7 



6.0 



Red Clover (green), 1:5. 7 



0.7 


0.07 


1.5 


0.15 


2 9 


0.29 


4.4 


0.44 


5.9 


0.58 


7.3 


0.73 


8.8 


0.87 


10.2 


1.02 


11.7 


1.16 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
4.9 
5.7 
6.6 



Clover Silage, 1:4.7 



0.7 
1.4 
2.8 
4.2 
5.6 
7.0 
8.4 
9.8 
11.2 



0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 



0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.1 



212 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS. — CONTINUED. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 


P QJ 




u 


Carbohy 
drates, etc . 


Total Dry 
Matter. 


.B 

p 
P^ 


1 6 

d 2 


p S 


c 

p 


1 6 
^■5 


Roots 


Potatoes, 1:7.3 | 


Sugar Beets, 1:6.8 | 


Carrots, 1:9.6 


W2 


0.5 


0.02 


0.4 


0.3 


0.04 


0.3 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


5 


1.1 


0.05 


0.8 


0.7 


0.08 


0.5 


0.5 


0.05 


0.5 


10 


2.1 


0.09 


1.6 


1.4 


0.16 


1.1 


1.1 


0.10 


1.0 


15 


3.2 


0.14 


2.3 


2.0 


0.24 


1.7 


1.6 


0.15 


1.4 


•20 


4.2 


0.18 


3.1 


2.7 


0.32 


2.2 


2.3 


0.20 


1.9 


25 


5.3 


0.23 


3.9 


3.4 


0.40 


2.7 


2.9 


0.25 


2.4 


30 


6.3 


0.27 


4.7 


4.1 


0.48 


3.3 


3.4 


0.30 


2.9 


35 


7.4 


0,32 


5.4 


4.7 


0.56 


3.8 


4.0 


0.35 


3.4 


40 


8.4 


0.36 


6.2 


5.4 


0.64 


4.4 


4.6 


0.40 


3.8 


Roots 


Mangel Wurtzels, 1:4.9| 


Rutabagas, 1:8.6 { 


Turnips, 1:7.7 


2^ 


0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


0.3 


0.03 


0.2 


0.2 


0.03 


0.2 


5 


0.4 


0.06 


0.3 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


0.5 


0.05 


0.4 


10 


0.9 


0.11 


0.5 


1.1 


0.10 


0.9 


1.0 


0.10 


0.8 


15 


1.4 


0.17 


0.8 


1.6 


0.15 


1.3 


1.4 


0.15 


1.2 


20 


1.8 


0.22 


1.1 


2.3 


0.20 


1.7 


1.9 


0.20 


1.5 


25 


2.3 


0.28 


1.4 


2.9 


0.25 


2.2 


2.4 


0.25 


1.9 


30 


2.7 


0.33 


1.6 


3.4 


0.30 


2.6 


2.9 


0.30 


2.3 


35 


3.2 


0.39 


1.9 


4.0 


0.35 


3.0 


3.3 


0.35 


2.7 


40 


3.6 


0.44 


2.2 


4.6 


1.40 


3.4 


3.8 


0.40 


3.1 


Milk 


Skim Milk, 1:2.0 


Buttermilk, 1:1.7 


Wliey, 1:8.7 


2^ 


0.2 


0.07 


0.1 


0.2 


0.10 


0.2 


0.2 


0.02 


0.1 


5 


0.5 


0.15 


0.3 


0.5 


0.19 


0.3 


0.3 


0.03 


0.3 


10 


0.9 


0.29 


0.6 


1.0 


0.38 


0.6 


0.6 


0.06 


0.5 


15 


1.4 


0.44 


0.9 


1.5 


0.57 


1.0 


0.9 


0.09 


0.8 


20 


1.9 


0.58 


1.2 


2.0 


0.76 


1.3 


1.2 


0.12 


1.0 


25 


2.4 


0.73 


1.6 


2.5 


0.95 


1.6 


1.5 


0.15 


1.3 


30 


2 8 


0.87 


1.8 


3.0 


1.14 


1.9 


1.9 


0.18 


1.6 


35 


3.2 


1.02 


2.1 


3.5 


1.33 


2.2 


2.2 


0.21 


1.8 


40 


3.7 


1.16 


2.4 


4.0 


1.52 


2.6 


2.5 


0.24 


2.1 


Hays 


Mixed Hay, 1:10.0 


Timothy Hay, 1:16.5 


Ky.BlueGrassHay,1:10 6 


2^ 


2.1 


0.11 


1.1 


22 


0.07 


1.2 


1.9 


0.09 


1.0 


5 


4.2 


0.22 


2.2 


.43 


0.15 


2.3 


3.7 


0.19 


2.0 


IV2 


6.4 


0.33 


3.3 


.65 


0.21 


3.5 


5.6 


0.28 


3.0 


10 


8.5 


0.44 


4.4 


.87 


0.28 


4.6 


7.4 


0.37 


3.9 


121^ 


10.6 


0.55 


5.5 


1.09 


0.35 


5.8 


9.2 


0.46 


4.9 


15 


12.7 


0.66 


^.^ 


1.30 


0.42 


6.9 


11.1 


0.56 


5.9 


YIV2 


14.8 


0.77 


7.7 


1.52 


0.49 


8.1 


13.0 


0.65 


6.9 


20 1' 


16.9 


0.88 


8.8 


1.74 


0.56 


9.2 


14.8 


0.74 


7.9 


25 ^' 


21.2 


1.10 


11.0 


2.17 


0.70 


11.6 


18.5 


0.93 


9.9 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 213 



VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS CONTINUED. 



rOUNDS OF 
FODDER. 



Hays 

W2 

5 

7/2 

10 

12^ 

15 

MYi 

20 

25 

Hays, etc. 

2V, 

5 

7/2 

10 

12>< 

15 

17^ 

20 

25 

Dry Fodder 

2]^ 

5 

7/2 

10 

12^ 

15 

17^ 

20 

25 

Grains 

% 

/2 

1 

2 

3 '.'.'.'.'. 

4 

5 

7^ 

10 



u -^ 

Q a; 



Oh 



Oat Hay, 1:9.9 



2.3 10.10 
4.6 0.21 
6.8|0.31 
0.41 
0.51 



9.1 
11.4 
13.7 
16.0 
18.2 
22.8 



0.62 
0.72 
0.82 
1.03 



1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
7.1 
8.1 
10.2 



Red Clover Hay, 1:5.9 



2.1 


0.18 


4.2 


0.36 


6.4 


0.53 


8.5 


0.71 


10.6 


0.89 


12.7 


1.07 


14.8 


1.24 


16.9 


1.42 


21.2 


1.78 



1.0 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.2 
6.3 
7.3 
8.3 
10.5 



Corn Fodder, 1;14.3 



1.4 


0.06 


2.9 


0.13 


4.3 


0.19 


5.8 


0.25 


7.2 


0.32 


8.7 


0.38 


10.1 


0.44 


11.6 


0.50 


14.5 


0.63 



0.9 

1.8 



Corn Meal, 1:11.3 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.03 


0.9 


0.06 


1.7 


0.13 


2.6 


0.19 


3.4 


0.25 


4.3 


0.32 


6.4 


0.48 


8.5 


0.63 



0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.9 
3.6 
5.4 
7.1 



>J 




ai 


.s 


3rt 


<0 
♦J 

p 






Oat and Pea Hay, 1:4.1 



2.2 


0.28 


4.4 


0.56 


Q.Q 


0.84 


8.9 


1.12 


11.1 


1.40 


13.3 


1.68 


15.5 


1.96 


17.7 


2 24 


22.1 


2.80 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 

4.6 
5.8 
Q.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Alsike Clover Hay, 1:5.5 



2.3 


0.21 


4.5 


0.42 


6.8 


0.63 


9.0 


0.84 


11.3 


1.05 


13.5 


1.26 


15.8 


1.47 


18.1 


1.68 


22.6 


2.10 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Corn Stover, 1:23.6 



0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 

8.3 
Corn & Cob Meal, 1:13.9 



1.5 


0.04 


3.0 


0.07 


4.5 


0.11 


6.0 


0.14 


7.5 


0.18 


9.0 


0.21 


10.5 


0.25 


12.0 


0.28 


15.0 


0.35 



0.2 


0.01 


0.4 


0.02 


0.9 


0.05 


1.7 


0.10 


2.6 


0.14 


3.4 


0.19 


4.3 


0.24 


6.4 


0.36 


8.5 


0.48 



0.2 
0.3 



3.4 
5.1 
6.7 



1^ 



I O 

2 « 



Hmigarian, 1: 10,0 
1.2 
2.4 
3.5 
4.9 
6.2 
7.4 
8.6 
9.8 
12.3 



2.1 


0.12 


4.2 


0.25 


6.3 


0.37 


8.4 


0.49 


10.4 


0.62 


12.5 


0.74 


14.6 


0.86 


16.7 


0.98 


20.8 


1.23 



Oat Straw, 1:38.3 



2.3 

4.6 

6.8 

9.1 

11.4 

13.9 

16.0 

18.2 

22.7 



f0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.5 



Wheat straw, 1:95.0 



2.3 0.01 

4.5|0.02 

6.8 0.03 

9.0 0.04 

3 0.05 

5 0.06 

15.8 0.07 

18.1 0'. 08 

22.6 0.10 



11, 
13, 



0.9 
1.9 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 



Oats, 1:6.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.18 


2.7 


0.28 


3.6 


0.37 


4.5 


0.46 


6.7 


0.69 


8.9I 


O.92I 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 



214 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS CONTINUED. 



POUNDS OF 
FODDER. 

By Products. 



Va 
V2 

1 

2 

3 

4 . 

5 

10 . 



By Products. 



Ya. 



1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

7/2 
10 



By Products. 



% 



1 , 
2 

3 \ 
4 

7/2 
10 



By Products. 



V2 
1 

2 
8 
4 
5 

10 



Q5 






u ■: 



Barley, 1:8.9 



0.2 
0.4 

o.y 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 



0.02 

0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 



^ ] 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6,. 9 



Wheat Middlings, 1:4.6 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 



10.031 
0.061 

0.13 
0.25 
0.381 
0.50 
0.63^ 
0.94J 
I1.25! 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Rye. 1:7.8 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.18 


2.7 


0.27 


3.5 


0.36 


4.4 


0.46 


^.^ 


0.67 


8.8 


0.89 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



Cottonseed Hulls, 



0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 



>. 



>>2 

_£5 35 

it 



Barley Screenings, 1:7. 7 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.6 


0.26 


3.5 


0.34 


4.4 


0.43 


^.^ 


0.65 


8.8 


0.86' 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 



^.^ 



Wheat Screenings, 1:5.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.10 


1.8 


0.20 


2.7 


0.29 


3.5 


0.39 


4.4 


0.49 


6.6 


0.74 


8.8 


0.98 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 



Rye Bran, 1:5.1 



0.2 


0.031 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.12 


1.8 


0.25 


2.7 


0.37 


3:5 


0.49 


4.4 


0.62 


6.6 


0.92 


8.8 


1.23! 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.6 
6.3 



Linseed Meal 0. p., 1:1. 5 



0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.9 
6.8 
9.0 



0.08 
0.15 
0.31 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 
1.54 
2.31 
8.08 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 






J3 *) 

I- 

O U 

■a 



Wheat Bran, 1:3.8 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.12 


1.8 


0.24 


2.6 


0.36 


3.5 


0.48 


4.4 


0.60 


^.% 


0.90 


8.8 


1.20 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



Red-dog Flour, 1:3.3 



0.2 


0.04 


0.5 


0.09 


0.9 


0.18 


1.8 


0.36 


2.7 


0.53 


3.6 


0.71 


4.6 


0.89 


6.8 


1.34 


9.1 


1.78 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 



0.2 


0.101 


0.5 


0.20, 


0.9 


0.40, 


1.8 


0.80 


2.9 


1.20 


3.7 


1.60 


4.6 


2.00 


6.9 


3.00 


9.2 


4.00 



Cottons eed Meal, 1:1.0 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 

Linseed Meal n. p., 1:1.3 
0.2 0.08 0.1 
0.4 0.16 0.2 
0.9 0.32 0.4 

1.8 0.65 0.8 
2.7 0.97 1.3 

3.6 1.30 1.7 
4.5 1.62 2.1 

6.7 2.43 3.2 

8.9 3.24 4.2 



READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 215 



VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS CONTINUED. 



1 
POUNDS OF i 
FODDER 


Total Dry 

Matter. 


"v 


u 


li 


>, . 

EH 


'S 
p 


rj OB 
U ^ 




.5 



1 6 

Is 


By Products 


Flax Mea!, 1:1.4 | 


Gluten Meal (Chi. )1:1.5| 


Gluten Meal (Cr'm.)1:1.7 


Va ■... 


0.2 


0.08] 0.1 1 


0.2 


0.08 


0.1 


0.2 


0.07 


0.1 


V2 


0.4 


0.16, 


0.2 


0.4 


0.16 


0.2 


0.4 


0.15 


0.2 


1 


0.}) 


0.32 


0.4 


0.9 


0.32 


0.5 


0.9 


0.30 


0.5 


2 


1.9 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.64 


0.9 


1.8 


0.59 


1.0 


3 


2.7 


0.96 


1.3 


2.6 


0.96 


1.4 


2.7 


0.89 


1.5 


4 


3.6 


1.28 


1.7 


3.5 


1.28 


1.9 


3.6 


1.19 


2.1 


5 


4.5 


1.60 


2.2 


4.4 


1.60 


2.3 


4.5 


1.49 


2.6 


7/2 


6.7 


2.40 


3.3 


^.^ 


2.40 


3.5 


6.7 


2.23 


3.9 


10 


8.9 


3.21 


4.3 


8.8 


3.21 


4.7 


9.0 


2.97 


5.1 


By Products 


G!utenFd.(Buffalo)1:2.4| 


Hominy Chop, 1:9.2 | 


Dried Brewers' G'r, 1:3.0 


Va 


0.2 


0.06 


0.1 


0.2 


0.02 


0.2 


0.2 


0.04 


0.1 


Vz 


0.4 


0.12 


0.3 


0.5 


0.04 


0.4 


0.5 


0.08 


0.3 


1 


0.9 


0.23 


0.6 


0.9 


0.09 


0.8 


0.9 


0.16 


0.5 


2 


1.8 


0.47 


1.1 


1.8 


0.17 


1.6 


1.8 


0.31 


0.9 


3 


2.7 


0.70 


1.7 


2.8 


0.26 


2.4 


2.8 


0.47 


1.4 


4 


3.6 


0.93 


2.3 


3.7 


0.35 


3.2 


3.7 


0.63 


1.9 


5 


4.5 


1.17 


2.8 


4.6 


0.44 


4.0 


4.6 


0.79 


2.4 


7^ 


6.8 


1.74 


4.3 


6.9 


0.65 


6.0 


6.9 


1.18 


3.5 


10 


9.0. 


2.33 


5.9 


9.2 


0.87 


I 8.0 


9.2 


1.57 


4.7 


By Products 


Atlas Gluten Meal, 1:2.6 


Malt Sprouts, 1:2.2 


Pea Meal, 1:3.2 


Va 


0.2 


|0.06 


0.2 


0.2 


0.05 


0.1 


0.2 0.04 0.1 


V2 


0.5 


0.12 


0.3 


0.4 


0.09 


0.2 


0.4 0.08 


0.3 


1 


0.9 


0.25 


0.6 


0.9 


0.19 


0.4 


0.9 0.17 


0.5 


2 


1.8 


0.49 


1.3 


1.8 


0.37 


0.8 


■ 1.8 0.33 


1.1 


3 


2 8 


0.74 


1.9 


2.7 


0.56 


1.2 


2.7 '0.50 


1.6 


4 


3.7 


0.98 


2.6 


3.6 


0.74 


1.6 


3.6 


,0.67 


2.1 


5 


4.6 


1.23 


3.2 


4.5 


0.93 


2.0 


4.5 


0.84 


2.7 


IV2 


6.9 


1.85 


4.9 


6.7 


1.40 


3.0 


6.7 


1.26 


4.0 


10 


9.2 


2.46 


6.5 


9.0 


I1.86 


4.0 


9.0 


1.68 


5.3 



CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of 
this book is to place before the farmer, dairyman and 
stockman such information as will be valuable and prac- 
tical, in as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to 
make a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the 
financial condition of the farmer. That the silo is a prime 
factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of 
doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an 
adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct 
to successful and profitable methods, its value is difficult 
to overestimate. 

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an 
innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better methods 
in general; it stimulates its owner and spurs him on to 
see just how good and far-reaching results he can obtain 
from his revised system of management. ^ It invites a 
little honest effort, and coupled with this it never fails. 
It enables its owner not only to do what he has been 
unable to do before, but things he has done without its 
help the silo enables him to do at less cost than before. 
The solution of the problem of cost of manufacture is 
necessary to every successful producer, and as the propo- 
sition is constantly changing, the solutions of our fore- 
fathers, or even of a generation ago, no longer avail. The 
silo is not an enticing speculation by means of which 
something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound busi- 
ness proposition, and has come to stay. The voices of 
thousands of our best farmers and dairymen sing its 
praises, because it has brought dollars into their pockets, 
and increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and 
their homes. 

Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not need 
a silo? Is it not worthy of your best thought and con- 
sideration? You owe it to yourself to make the most you 
can out of the opportunities before you. DO IT NOW! 

216 



DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. 217 

GLOSSARY. 

Ad libitum. At pleasure; in case of feeding farm ani- 
mals, all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff. 

Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest 
importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the 
material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, casein of 
milk, and other animal products are manufactured. An- 
other name for albuminoids is flesh-forming substances 
or protein. 

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains 
when it is burned, the incombustible part of foods. The 
ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of young 
animals, and in the case of milch cows a portion thereof 
goes into the milk or milk ash. 

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms usually in 
the form of a jointed rod-like filament, and found in putre- 
fying organic infusions. They are widely diffused in 
nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity. Certain 
species are active agents in fermentation, while others 
appear to be the cause of certain infectious diseases. 

Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs, 
containing the various nutrients in such proportions and 
amounts as will nurture the animals for twenty-four hours, 
with the least waste of nutrients. 

By-Prod ucts. A secondary product of an industry; 
cottonseed meal is a by-product of the cotton oil industry; 
skim milk and butter milk are by-products of butter 
making. 

Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients rich in carbon 
and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion 
in which they form water. The most important carbohy- 
drates found in feeding stuffs are starch, gums and crude 
fiber (cellulose.) 

Carbon. A chemical element, which, with the elements 
of water makes up the larger part of the dry matter of 
plants and animals. 

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the com- 
bustion of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds of fer- 
mentations and therefore occurs in the siloing of fodders. 

Cellulose. See Crude fiber. 

Crude fiber. The frame work forming the walls of 
cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin, 
the latter being the woody portion of plants and wholly 
indigestible. 

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which 
is digested by animals, 1. e., brought in Bolution or semi- 



218 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. 

solution by the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as 
nourishment for the animal and furnish material for the 
production of meat, milk, wool, eggs, etc. 

Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remain- 
ing after the water contained therein has been removed. 

Ensilage. An obsolete word for Silage. Used as a verb, 
likewise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also sometimes 
incorrectly used for the purpose of placing green fodders 
into a silo, 

Enzemes. An unorganized or chemical compound of 
vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermentation, as, 
pepsin, or rennet. 

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dis- 
solved by ether; mainly fat or oil in case of concentrated 
feeding stuffs; in coarse fodders, fat, mixed with a num- 
ber of substances of uncertain feeding value, like wax, 
chlorophyll (the green coloring matter of plants), etc. 

Fat. See Ether extract. 

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the 
amount of various digestible substances in a combina- 
tion of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good results as 
regards production of animal products, like beef, pork, 
milk, etc. 

Indian corn. Zea M.ays, the great American cereal and 
fodder-prOducing plant. 

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined 
with oxygen it forms water, with oxygen and carbon it 
forms carbohydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and 
nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phosphorus) 
it forms the complex organic nitrogenous substances 
known as protein albuminoid substances. 

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and capable 
of fixing the gaseous nitrogen of the air, so that it be- 
comes of value to the farmer and will supply nitrogenous 
food substances to farm animals. Examples, the different 
kinds of clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc. Of the highest 
importance agriculturally, as soil renovators, and in sup- 
plying farm-grown protein foods. 

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-fifths 
of the air. The central element of protein. See under 
Hydrogen. 

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff 
remaining when water, fat, protein, crude fiber, and ash 
are deducted. It Includes starch, sugar, pentosans, and 
other substances. It is so called because it does not con- 
tain any nitrogen. 



DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. 219 

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitro- 
gen (which see). 

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food con- 
stituents capable of nourishing animals. 

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein 
to the sum of digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration, 
the per cent, of fat being multiplied by 2^4, and added to 
the per cent, of carbohydrates (crude fiber plus nitrogen- 
free extract). 

Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter which 
is destroyed on combustion (dry matter minus ash). 

Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state 
in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in 
combination of hydrogen in water; oxygen is also a rarely- 
lacking component of organic substances. See Carbo- 
liydrates and Hydrogen. 

Protein. A general name for complex organic com- 
pounds mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydro- 
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Crude protein includes all 
organic nitrogen compounds, while true protein or albu- 
minoids (which see) only includes such nitrogenous sub- 
stances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming muscle 
and other tissue in the animal body. 

Ration. The amount of food that an animal eats 
during twenty-four hours. 

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including 
such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn fodder, 
roots, etc. Concentrated feeding stuffs are sometimes 
called grain-feeds or concentrates, in contradistinction to 
roughage. 

Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. For- 
merly called ensilage. 

Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preservation 
of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As 
verb, to place green fodders in a silo. 

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a 
barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as 
rye, corn, oats, Hungarian grass, etc. 

Starch. One of the most common carbohydrates in 
feeding stuffs insoluble in water, but readily digested and 
changed in sugar in the process of digestion. 

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing consider- 
able water, like green fodder, silage roots and pasture. 

Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out during 
the summer and early fall to help out short pastures. 

Summer silo. A Silo used for the making of summer 
silage. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Advantages of the silo .' 11, 182 

Alfalfa silage 142 

Analyses of feeding stuffs 205 

Animal body, composition of the 100 

Ash 192 

Average composition of silage crops 204 

Beet-pulp silage 146 

Beets, cost of, per acre 184 

Beef cattle, silage for 173 

Blower elevators 159 

Brick silos 105 

Capacity of round silos 53 

Carbonic-acid poisoning in silos, danger from 160 

Cement block silos, how made, reinforcing, etc. of. .. . 127 

Cement lining, how to maintain 129 

Certified milk, silage in production of 169 

Chemical composition of silage 204 

Chute for a round wooden silo 102 

Circles, circumferences, and areas of 101 

Clover silage 140, 163 

Clover silage, cost of 141 

Clover, time of cutting for the silo 141, 142 

Clover, yield per acre of 142 

Concrete silos 121, 126 

Concrete silos, forms used for making 131 

Conserving soil fertility with silage system 42 

Corn, cutting of, in the field 149 

Corn land, preparation of 133 

Corn, methods of planting 139 

Corn silage vs. fodder corn 186 

Corn silage vs. hay 184 

Corn silage vs. roots 182 

Corn, siloing of, "ears and all" 152 

Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn. 

Corners of square silos, m.ethods of excluding air from 107 

Cost of beets per acre 184 

Cost of a pound of digestible dry matter in different 

feeding stuffs 211 

Conclusion 216 

Cost of corn silage 186 

Cost of silos 1 1 2, 115 

Covering silage 161 

Cow-pea silage 143 

Comparative losses in dry curing 15 

220 



INDEX. 221 

PAGE 

Corn, time of cutting for silo 136 

Composition of the animal body 190 

Composition of the silage crops 204 

Composition of feeding stuffs 191 

Crude fiber 193 

Cutter and power, size of 155, 157 

Definition of terms used 217 

Description of "Ohio" silage cutters 156, 228 

Digestibility of foods 194 

Doors for silos 68, 95 

Drought, silo in times of 25 

Ears and all, siloing of corn 152 

Economy of storage 19 

Elevators, pneumatic 159, 160 

Ensilage, see Silage. 

Estimating of materials for silos 115 

Feeders' guide, etc 190 

Feeding stuffs, composition of 191 

Feeding standards 196-199 

Feeding of silage 167 

Field-curing of fodder corn, losses in 11, 14 

Filling of silo 20, 149, 155 

Food from thistles 21 

Food ingredients, increase in 138 

Freezing of silage 165 

Grain mixtures for dairy cows 200 

Guide, a feeders' 192 

Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for 151 

Hills or drills, planting of corn in 139 

History of the silo 7 

Horizontal girts, silos with 109 

Horses, silage for 174 

How to feed silage 167 

How to figure out rations 200 

Indian corn, soil adapted for 133 

Indian corn, methods of planting 139 

Indian corn 133 

Indian corn, chemical changes in 137 

Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tassel- 

ing to ripeness 138 

Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo... 134 
Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn. 

Ingleside farms, silos 158 

Introduction 9 

Lining for silos 70, 75 

Losses in dry curing 11, 14 

Losses In the siloing process 15 



222 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Losses in siloing Alfalfa 17 

Low wagons for hauling corn 151 

Lucerne, see Alfalfa. 

Materials for the silo 89 

Metal bucket, chain elevators 157 

Milch cows, silage rations for 171 

Milch cows, silage for 167 

Mineral matter 190 

Modification of "Wisconsin" silo 76 

Miscellaneous silage crops 146-148 

New Jersey Experiment Station silo 158 

Nitrogen-free extract 193 

No danger of rain 19 

Number of staves required for stave silos 100 

Nutritive Ratio 197 

Octagonal silos 108 

Opinions of recognized leaders 188 

"Ohio" silage cutters, description of 155, 160 

Painting the silo lining 75 

Plastered round wooden silos 77 

Planting corn, methods of 139 

Planting corn, thickness of 139 

Pneumatic elevators 159 

"Poultrymen's silos" 182 

Poultry, silage for 181 

Preparation of corn land 133 

Preservation of silos 118, 120 

Protein 193 

Rack, low-down, for hauling corn 151 

Rations, how to figure out 200 

Rations, silage, for dairy cows 171 

Ready reference tables 211, 215 

Relative value of feeding stuffs 195 

Reinforced concrete silo construction 125 

Roof for the silo 73, 88, 96, 97 

Round silos 53 

Sheep, silage for 176 

Shrinking of silage-fed cattle 38 

Silage, alfalfa ' 142 

Silage and soil fertility 42 

Silage cart 1^8 

Silage, chemical composition of 204 

Silage, clover 140 

Silage, cost of 141 

Silage cropi IW 

Silage, feeding of 167 

Silage for horses 1''4 



^NDEX. 223 

PAGE 

Silage for milch cows 167, 171 

Silage for poultry 181 

Silage for sheep 176 

Silage for beef cattle 173 

Silage for swine 180 

gilage-fed beef cattle in the South 37 

Silage, freezing of 165 

Silage good for stockers 40 

Silage, how to feed 167 

Silage, quantities of, required for different herds 54 

Silage rations for milch cows 171 

Silage, use of in beef production 28 

Silage, steaming of 166 

Silo, summer 23 

Silos, acreage to fill 54 

Silos, how to build 48 

Silos, general requirements for 48 

Silos, on the form of 54 

Silos, the filling process 153 

Silos, time of filling 149 

Silos, roof for 103 

Silos, round all-stone 103 

Silos, round wooden 53 

Silos, concrete 121-126 

Silos, cement block 127 

Silos, chute for 103 

Silos, cost of 76, 77, 81, 96, 98, 112, 115 

Silos, location of 58 

Silos, specifications for 60, 76, 81, 86, 108 

Silos, square, methods of excluding air from corners of 107 

Silos, stone 105 

Silos, value in intensive farming 21 

Silos, ventilation of 24 

Silos, with horizontal girts 109 

Silos, foundation of 60, 61, 63, 65, 86, 109 

Size of silo required 51 

Silos, brick lined 81 

Silos, all brick 105 

Silos, in the barn 106 

Silos, octagonal 108 

Size of cutter and power required 155 

Sorghum silage 145 

Southern and Northern varieties of corn, comparative 

yield of 135 

Soil fertility maintained with silage 42 

Soiling crops, table of 209 

Soiling crops, time of planting and feeding 209 



224 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Soja Beans 145 

Specifications for a stave silo 86 

Stave silos 83, 98 

Stave silos, calculation of staves required for 101 

Stave silos, roof of 88 

Stave silos, specifications for 86 

Staves, calculation of number required 101 

Steamed silage 166 

Steers, silage for 173 

Stockers, silage good for 40 

Stone silos 105 

Succulence 18 

Summer silo, advantages of 23 

Summary results 40 

Swine, silage for 180 

Thickness of planting corn 139 

Time of filling the silo 20, 149 

Time of cutting corn for the silo 136 

Use of silage in beef production 28 

Value in intensive farming 21 

Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo 134 

Waste of roughness 38 

Water, use of in filling silos 162 

Weight of concentrated feeds 208 

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, description of 80, 82 

Yields of clover per acre 140 



1 5 Years' Experience with the Silo 

By F. L. Allen. 



MAPLE CREEK FARM 

Trumbull Co., Ohio. 

The Silver Manufacturing Co., Saiem, Ohio. 

Gentlemen: — Complying with your request I submit the fol- 
lowing as embracing my experience of 15 years with the silo, 
and in feeding silage for milk and beef: 

Economy of the Silo. 

The silo cannot be looked upon as the only essential ele- 
ment of success in farm practice, yet there are many distinct 
advantages to be gained from its use. In the first place it en- 
ables one to use the entire corn crop. The analysis of the corn 
plant shows that nearly one-half its food value is in the stalk 
and leaves after the ear has been removed. It also shows that 
there is the most digestible matter in the crop just at its matur- 
ity, before it dries and hardens. By the usual methods of hand- 
ling the crop, a large part — frequently all — of the fodder is 
wasted, and a distinct loss is incurred by allowing the fodder 
to dry out. The use of the silo enables the feeder to avoid 
these losses, for he can take the entire crop from the- field just 
at the time when it contains the most digestible food value, 
place it under cover at the barn convenient for feeding, succu- 
lent, digestible, palatable, in such condition that it will all be 
consumed. 

We value the silo as the source of an abundant supply of 
cheap, succulent food for the winter months or seasons of 
drouth. Silage, if properly put up, will keep for an indefinite 
time. We have fed it four years old as "good as new." It is 
worth while to have it on hand ready to supply the need at 
any time. 

Silage Differs In Composition. 

Many farmers seem to forget that the silo merely preserves 
what is put into it. One can never ^et anything out of a silo 
that he doesn't first put in. If soft, immature corn is put into 
a silo, the silage will be sour, washy stuff, with little "body" 
to it, and its feeding will be a disappointment. On the other 
hand, if good, mature, well-eared corn is siloed, the result will 
be a strong, nutritious food, highly satisfactory. 

Chemical analysis of the corn plant shows that it nearly 
doubles in feeding value between the time it reaches its full 
growth (tasseled) and maturity. The feeding value of silage 
will correspond with the maturity of the corn siloed. 

Silage Not a Perfect Food. 

Probably most will agree that good blue grass pasture Is 
the cheapest and most satisfactory, all-around food for growth 
or milk. Now, if we will compare the analyses of blue grass 
pasture and good silage, we will find them almost identical 
except in the matter of protein, in which element silage is 
deficient. 

Water. Protein Carbohvdrates Fat 

Pasture grass 80 2.6 10.6 .5 

Silage 79 1.2 11.8 .6 

225 
■ 15 



Fifteen Years' Experience With the Silo — Continued. 



By comparing the analyses we will see that to make silage 
an economical food, and to get the most out of it, it is neces- 
sary to feed in connection with it some food rich in protein. 
It has been our experience that by using the succulent silage 
as a basis for our ration and adding sufficient protein to dupli- 
cate the analysis of pasture grass, we can have very nearly 
summer food and secure very nearly summer results in the 
winter. We have a theory that inasmuch as silage is a sum- 
mer food — that is, has the succulence of summer food — summer 
conditions of warmth should be provided to go with the food. 
Nature in wisdom provides the succulent grasses for the warmth 
of summer and dried grasses for the cold of winter. Possibly 
many disappointments can be traced to a failure to provide 
suitable conditions for the feeding of silage. 

Cost of Silage. 

Silage is one of the cheapest foods the stockman can use. 
The cost of growing an acre of corn to maturity will be about 
as follows: Use of land, $5; plowing, $2; fitting, $1; planting, 
50 cents; seed, 25 cents; cultivating, $1.25. Total cost of an acre 
of corn at maturity, $10. It will be seen at once that these 
are very liberal allowances, giving the farmer a good income 
from his investment, and good wages for all time spent in 
producing the crop. On good land, with good care, in a fairly 
favorable season, a crop of 16 to 20 tons per acre is not at all 
unattainable, making the silage cost on the ground, 50 to 60 
cents per ton. With modern machinery and good management, 
it can be put into the silo for 35 to 40 cents per ton. Indeed, 
with our large machinery and strong force of men, we have put 
it into the silo for less than 30 cents. Interest on the cost of a 
silo, and deterioration of the silo, will add 10 cents more, mak- 
ing the total cost of a ton of silage $0.95 to $1.10. 

Fifty pounds of silage per day is a good ration for a grown 
animal. Forty days feed for a dollar! And an acre of good 
corn will feed three or four animals 200 days, or through the 
winter. Surely there is no cheaper food. 

Filling the Silo. 

We have found that we fill the silo much cheaper by using 
machinery of large size, and employing a sufficient force of men 
to keep it running to its full capacity. Our machine, which is 
a company affair, is a 24-inch "OHIO," and will handle about 
all the corn that can be got to it. Our force consists of five or 
six teams and wagons, according to the distance of hauling, 
six men in the field to load the wagons, two men at the cutter 
to help driver unload, and one man in the silo. The corn is 
cut with a harvester and tied in bundles as large as a man 
can lift. We divide our help in the field in to two companies 
or gangs, three men loading half the wagons and three the 
other half. Thus they are not in each other's way, and three 
men can hand the bundles up to the loader as fast as he can 
place them. We load the wagons beginning at the rear end, 
building up a tier of bundles against the rear standard, then 
another, till the load is completed, and placing them so that 
butts will be toward the machine in unloading. Loaded in this 
way the bundles do not overlap and bind each other, and three 
men at the machine, each taking a bundle in turn, and placing 
it in the cutter, can feed the largest machine to its full capacity, 
and unload a wagon in a surprisingly short time. In a trial we 

226 



Fifteen Years' Experience With the Silo — Continued. 



have unloaded a 3800-pound load, cut it in %-inch lengths, and 
elevated it into a 45-foot silo in a fraction over three minutes 
With good corn we can put in 20 tons per hour, at a cost of 
less than 30 cents per ton. The more modern blower has many 
advantages over the old carrier and very rapid work may be 
done by some of the new machines. 

Silage for Milk. 

It is generally admitted that the silo is a good thing In the 
dairy. In the dairy section of Ohio it has found a place on most 
dairy farms and is considered indispensable, especially for win- 
ter milk. It is our practice to feed silage the year round, ex- 
cepting perhaps a couple of months in the early summer, when 
the pasture is at its best, and we have come to value it nearly, 
if not quite, as highly to supplement summer pastures as for 
the winter ration. 

Silage for Beef. 

While most persons are now ready to admit that silage is a 
desirable food in the dairy, many yet question its value in the 
production of beef. Theoretically the ration that will produce 
a large flow of milk ought to promote the growth of the young 
beef animal. Our experience proves the truth of the theory 
so far as silage is concerned. Just as the milch cow in the 
winter approximates summer results in milk, when silage is 
used as a basis of the ration, so the young steer approximates 
summer results in growth on the same ration. We have had 
steers make an average gain of three pounds per day for a 
short time on a silage ration balanced with protein grain, such 
as the gluten feeds. 

One thing has not been mentioned and that is the health 
and thrift of the animals, whether milch cows or steers. Our 
animals always shed in March, are always in condition and 
ready to make rapid gains on the first grass of spring. We 
have fed silage to horses, brood sows and poultry, with very 
satisfactory results. Yours truly, 

F. L. ALLEN. 



Publishers' Note. 

In talking with Ex-Governor Hoard of Wisconsin recently, 
he mentioned the fact that he has made a practice for the past 
three years of putting about 30 bbls. of water on top of his 
silage after filling, with very satisfactory results. It seems to 
settle the whole mass and especially the top, and causes a 
very thin crust to form, thus sealing the silo with scarcely a 
cart full of waste. 

The "Ohio" Blower Machine will elevate the water and 
spread it over the top perfectly. 



227 



"Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter 

Showing New Metal Bucket Carrier, Set for Right- 
Angle Delivery 




Fig. 784, No. 1 1 

No. 11 "With two 11-in. knives, cuts Va, 1, 1% and 2 inches, 
weight 440 lbs 

No. 11 With four 11-in. knives, cuts %, %, % and 1 inch, 
weight 440 lbs 

Reversible carrier with angle or straight delivery; 
also straight delivery carrier with reversible at- 
tachments, in 12-ft. lengths or more, can be 
supplied for these machines. 

Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, with two knives, 
can also be furnished. 

Machines are regularly equipped with four cutting 
knives, but when desired can be supplied with 
Shredder blades instead, at slight extra cost. 
Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238. 

For full information, prices, etc., see our large 
Feed and Ensilage Cutter Catalog. 

228 



Smallest Size Ensilage Cutter. 

The illustration on the opposite page is a good representation 
of the smallest size ensilage cutter and it shows also the new 
metal bucket carrier set for right angle delivery. This is the 
style carrier manufactured for this machine, and it can be set 
at right or left angle, or straightaway. 

Construction of the Carrier. 

The sides of the trough are tied together by wood strips and 
they are reinforced by iron rods. The hangers at top have 
adjustment which is to set the tension in the chain. The chain 
is malleable links of standard make, and the attachment link 
is our special design and admits of the bucket being full width 
of the trough. The buckets are heavy sheet metal and are 
two inches high. The metal hood at bottom and a tail piece 
under the chain catch the cut ensilage and prevent it spilling 
out. It will carry the ensilage away as fast as it comes from 
the machine. 

Uses of Elevators. 

The first and principal use of elevators of this kind is to convey 
cut ensilage into the silo. Other uses are to deliver dry cut 
feed, of whatever kind, into bays, bins, lofts, and other places 
away from the machine, which saves the expense of a man. 

Has Capacity to Fill 50-ton Silos. 

The cutter is substantial, has large capacity, and is adapted 
to cut all kinds of dry feed as well as ensilage. It has capacity 
to fill 50-ton silos, and even larger ones, but as this work neces- 
sitates a force of men and teams, and taking into account the 
liability of frost, owners of silos usually give preference to a 
larger machine, so that the cutting may be done quickly and 
not lag. 

Shredding Fodder. 

By substituting shredder blades for the cutting knives, perfect 
shredding can be accomplished. A sample of the shredded 
material as it comes from the machine is shown in the illus- 
tration on page 238. A full description accompanies the illus- 
tration. 

Capacity. 

Dry feed 2500 to 3000 pounds; ensilage, three to four tons per 

hour. 

Speed. 

450 to 600 revolutions per minute. 
Power. 

Two-horse. 

Pulley. 

Size sent 12x4-inch face; diameters, 6, 8, 10 and 15 Inches 
can be furnished. 

Weight. 

No. 11 Cutter, 440 lbs. Reversible carrier, 12 feet long; 200 
pounds; extensions, per foot, 8 pounds. 

229 



'Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter 

Equipped with Self-Feed Table and Blower Elevator 




Fig. 803. No. 1 1 

No. 11 Self Feed Cutter, complete as illustrated; weight 
725 lbs 

No. 11 Plain Table Cutter complete; weight 925 lbs 

These machines are equipped with Blower and 
Hood, but no pipe. They have two 11-inch 
knives and cut %, 1, 1% and 2 inches. 

7-inch galvanized pipe comes in 4, 6 and 10-ft. 
lengths 

Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, can be supplied. 

Machines are regularly equipped with cutting 
knives, but when desired can be supplied with 
Shredder Blades instead, at slight extra cost. 
Shredder Blades are illustrated and described 
on page 238. 

For full information and prices, see our large Feed 
and Ensilage Cutter catalog. 

230 



DESCRIPTION 

The Illustration. 

On the opposite page is shown our No. 11 Feed and En- 
silage Cutter, equipped with Blower Elevator and Self Feed 
Table. This addition has been made in order to meet a growing 
demand for a Blower Cutter to be operated with light power — 
four to six horse. The machine is also made with plain table 
instead of Self-Feed. 
Adaptability. 

This Cutter has long been our most popular size for general 
farm use. It is adapted for cutting all kinds of dry feeds as well 
as ensilage, is strongly and durably built, has large capacity and 
requires but slight power to run. 
Direct Blast Blower. 

The fan wheel is heavy and carries three blades or paddles, 
which are fastened absolutely rigid. The fan case is made of 
heavy steel, and is closely riveted. The general construction 
is identical with that of the Blower so successfully used for the 
past eight years in connection with our "Monarch" Machines. 
An auger conveys the cut material into the Blower. 
Materials and Construction. 

The frame throughout is of the best hardwood, rigidly put 
together. It is nicely striped and finished in the natural; the 
iron work is maroon and the whole machine is varnished, giving 
a very attractive appearance. The knives are made of a high 
carbon steel, are carefully tempered and very durable. They 
are securely bolted to solid knife heads and are readily ad- 
justable. The knife shaft is of steel, 1% inches in diameter. 
The shaft bearings are long and well babbitted. The feeding 
mechanism is excellent. As the upper feed roller rises to 
allow the feed to pass through, the cog wheels remain in proper 
mesh without binding, making an easy-running, durable device. 
The throwout or feed lever is also very simple and easy of 
operation. Its use enables the operator to stop the feed in- 
stantly in case of accident or otherwise. 
The Pipe and Pipe Connections. 

The pipe is 7 inches in diameter and is made of galvanized 
steel with standing seam on the outside, running lengthwise, 
being very rigid. It is made in 4, 6 and 10-foot lengths with 
7-inch slip joints and a clamping band at each joint. A swivel 
joint connection at the fan case allows the pipe to turn in any 
direction. Included with each machine is a hood or elbow which 
is to connect to upper end of pipe and convey the cut ensilage 
into the silo. 
Set Pipe Nearly Perpendicular for Ensilage; 

Dry Feed Can Be Blown in Any Direction. 

If lateral delivery is desired, suitable elbows can be fur- 
nished at slight cost. For green silage it is necessary to carry 
the pipe nearly perpendicular to height of opening and the 
hood at top will direct the silage into silo. Dry cut or shredded 
fodder may be blown in almost any direction by proper use 
of suitable elbows. 
Shredding Fodder. 

The new patented shredder blade should be run at 600 to 
700 revolutions per minute while shredding, and is a notable 
advance in construction, enabling the operator to shred dry 
fodder or corn stover with the blower. There is a great saving 
in power also, as compared with the tooth or saw-blade type 
of shredder, besides saving the leaves in much better condition. 
See illustration of shredded material on page 238. 
Capacity. 

The machine will cut and elevate from 3 to 5 tons ensilage 
per hour. 
Power. 

Plain table, 5 or 6 horse; Self Feed, 6 or 7 horse. 
Speed. 

650 to 750 revolutions per minute. 
Pullev. 

10 in. diameter by 6 in. face. Choice of other diameters 
when wanted. 

231 



"Ohio" Monarch Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter 

Showing New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier 




Fig. 794, Nos. 12. 14. 17, 19 and 22 



No. 12 Cuts 14 in.. 

No. 14 Cuts % in., 

No. 17 Cuts % in., 

No. 19 Cuts % in.. 

No. 22 Cuts 14 in 



m., 
in., 
in., 
in., 
in, 



% in. and 1 in. 



weight 1000 lbs 
weight 1050 lbs 
weight 1100 lbs 
weight 1150 lbs 
weight 1200 lbs 



in. and 1 in.; 
in. and 1 in.; 
in. and 1 in.; 
in. and 1 in. : 
12-ft. Straight Carrier for Nos. 12, 14 and 17; 240 lbs 
12-ft. Straight Carrier for Nos. 19 and 22; 355 lbs. . 
12-ft. Swivel Carrier for Nos. 12, 14, and 17; 315 lbs. 
12-ft. Swivel Carrier for Nos. 19 and 22; 480 lbs. . . . 
Carrier over 12 ft. for Nos. 12, 14 and 17 per ft; 10 lbs.. 

Carrier over 12 ft. for Nos. 19 and 22 ; 14 lbs 

Wood cover for Carrier, with hooks and eyes to 

fasten, can be furnished for all sizes. 
Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, with two knives, 

can also be supplied. 
Machines are regularly equipped with four cutting 

knives, but when desired can be supplied with 

Shredder Blades instead at slight extra cost. 

Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238. 
For full information, prices, etc., see our large Feed 

and Ensilage Cutter Catalog. 

232 



The illustration opposite shows a No. 17 "Ohio" Mon- 
arch Self-feed Cutter with metal bucket swivel carrier 
attached. Carriers are furnished in any length that may 
be required. 

The machines are made in five sizes, with capacities 
and required powers as listed below. 

They are also manufactured with Blower Elevator, as 
shown in illustration on page 234. 

The "Ohio" machines are supreme in the Ensilage Cut- 
ter field, due to their wonderful capacity, great durability 
and easy-running-and-feeding qualities. 

It is significant that the "Ohio" self-feed mechanism has 
been copied by all other manufacturers, which proves its 
value. The table is 8 feet long, and the largest bundles of 
corn can be thrown on it and without further attention are 
carried to the feed rolls and thence to the knives. 

No. 12 — Capacity, 8 to 10 tons per hour; power, 4 to 6 
horse steam. 

No. 14 — Capacity, 12 to 15 tons per hour; power, 4 to 6 
horse steam. 

No. 17 — Capacity, 15 to 20 tons per hour; power, 6 to 8 
horse steam. 

No. 19 — Capacity, 20 to 25 tons per hour; power, 8 to 10 
horse steam. 

No. 22 — Capacity, 25 to 30 tons per hour; power, 10 to 12 
horse steam. 

Speed — 450 to 600 revolutions per minute, pulley 12x6 
inches; choice of other diameters when wanted. 

233 



"Ohio" Monarch Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter 

With Blower Elevator 

This is a very fine view of the machine 
in its entirety. The hood over the cutting 
cylinder is closed down ready for action. 
The gearing is protected by guards, as 
shown. 




Fig. 802, Nos. 1 9 and 22 



No. 12 Cuts i/i in., % in., % in. and 1 in. 

No. 14 Cuts ^ in., % in., % in. and 1 in. 

No. 17 Cuts ^ in., Vz in., % in. and 1 in. 

No. 19 Cuts 1^ in., Yz in., % in. and 1 in. 

No. 22 Cuts 1/4 in., V2 in., % in. and 1 in. 



weight 1500 lbs. 
weight 1550 lbs. 
weight 1600 lbs. 
weight 1650 lbs. 
weight 1700 lbs. 



Regular equipment for above machines includes 
blower, covered pulley and distributer, but no 
pipe. 

10-inch galvanized pipe conies in 4, 6, 8 and 10 -foot 
lengths (weight 4 pounds to foot.) 

Extra gears, to cut 4 inches long, with 2 knives, 
can also be furnished. 

Machines are regularly equipped with 4 cutting 
knives, but when desired, can be supplied with 
shredder blades instead, at slight extra cost. 
Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238. 

For full information, prices, etc., see our large Feed 
and Ensilage Cutter Catalog. 

234 



The machine illustrated on opposite page is representa- 
tive of the * Ohio" Monarch Self-feed Blower Ensilage 
Cutter. As previously stated, these machines are made in 
five sizes, Nos. 12, 14, 17, 19 and 22; the blower is a part 
of the machine. 

The construction throughout is heavy and powerful. 
The frame is strong and rigidly put together; the steel 
knife shaft is heavy, running clear through the machine 
and carrying the drive pulley, knife heads and fly wheel. 
Four steel paddles are fastened to this fly wheel, in such 
a way that it is absolutely impossible for them to become 
loosened in any way. A heavy, well-riveted sheet steel 
fan case acts as a covering for the whole. 

The characteristic feature of the "Ohio" Monarch 
Blower is its immense capacity, using so little power. The 
power is applied primarily to the main shaft, and all the 
heavy work — cutting and elevating — is done direct from 
this shaft, so that not an ounce of power is wasted through 
short belts, transmission gears, etc. Moreover, the liabil- 
ity of breakage and wear is reduced to a minimum. 

The pipe is 10 inches in diameter, in convenient 
lengths, and made of galvanized steel. A swivel joint con- 
nection of the fan case allows it to turn in any direction. 

The new patented "Ohio" silage distributor (see page 
237) is included with each machine. 

No. 12 — Capacity, 8 to 10 tons per hour; 6 to 8 horse 
power. 

No. 14— Capacity, 12 to 15 tons per hour; 8 to 10 horse 
power. 

No. 17— Capacity, 15 to 20 tons per hour; 10 to 12 horse 
power. 

No. 19 — Capacity, 20 to 25 tons per hour; 12 to 14 horse 
power. 

No. 22 — Capacity, 25 to 30 tons per hour; 14 to 16 horse 
power. 

Speed — 650 to 700 revolutions per minute. Pulley 12x8 
inches, leather covered. Choice of other diam- 
eters when wanted. 

235 



New Steel Truck 

For Mounting "Ohio" Ensilage Cutters 
Fig. 815 




This new steel truck is suitable for mounting all sizes 
of "Ohio" Silage Cutters with traveling feed tables, both 
Blower and Carrier style, and it is recommended as a 
thoroughly practical, economical and satisfactory mount- 
ing for all parties who wish to move their machines fre- 
quently or regularly. All parts are interchangeable, and 
in case of accident may be readily replaced. 

Full description and price in our Feed and Ensilage 
Cutter Catalog. 

236 




Patented '*Ohio" 
Silage Distributer 

Furnished FREE with all 
"Ohio" Monarch Blower 
machines. 



New- 
Silo 
Tube 



"Ohio" Silage Distributer. The new distributer furnished 
with each machine is a curved, jointed elbow, 5 feet long, open 
on the outer side so as to prevent back pressure. Firmest at- 
tachment to the pipe is secured by two clamping bands around 
the upper end of the pipe. There is a hinged joint at the middle 
of the curve, which allows the outer end to be raised and 
lowered by means of a rope reaching to the ground, thus di- 
recting the cut material toward any point across the silo. By 
means of the swivel at the bottom of the pipe the hood can be 
turned to the right or left and in this manner the cut ensilage 
may be evenly distributed over the entire silo during the process 
of filling. This device is patented, and a distinctive feature to 
be had only "vith "Ohio" Blowers. 

Our Nevy, Silo Tube can be hung from the distributor or 
roof of silo. It catches the silage and delivers it in a compact 
mass at the bottom of the silo. This insures perfectly equal 
distribution of the cut feed, the leaves, moisture and heavier 
parts being always uniformly mixed as cut. It is flexible in 
character and is to be guided by hand. The man inside the 
silo will appreciate this tube, as its use eliminates the objection- 
able features heretofore connected with his part of the work. 

Important! 
The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge of the silo 
at all times, thus keeping it high and packing it there, letting 
the center take care of itself. The weight of the silage packs 
it in the center. 

237 



The New **Ohio" Shredder 

Showing a Sample of Shredded Com Stalks 




Speed, 600 to 700 revolutions 

The illustration above shows a regular "Ohio" machine 
equipped with our Patented Shredder Blades instead of with 
Knives. These Shredder Btades are interchangeable with cut- 
ting Knives on all sizes of cutters from No. 9 up, so that by 
purchasing the Blades extra the user has two machines in one, 
with little extra cost. 

When shredded properly, corn is much more readily eaten 
and with much less waste than when fed whole. Shredded dry 
fodder is considered much better than dry cut fodder, for the 
reason that it is split and torn, thus doing away with the trou- 
blesome sharp edges. 

The new Shredder Blade successfully reduces the fodder 
to the proper condition, with the same power, speed and capacity 
as the regular "Ohio" Cutter. The blades have projecting steel 
teeth — no two in succession travel in the same path. Unlike the 
saw-blade or tooth Shredders, they do not pulverize and waste 
the leaves, but split and tear the stalks perfectly. The shredded 
corn in the picture was made with two blades on the cylinder 
and it is reduced to a nice condition; hence four blades will 
shred it much finer. 

The greatest saving in this new shredder is that perfect 
work can be done at normal speed (600 to 700 revolutions), 
which means that the same power which runs the cutter will 
run the shredder — and that nothing extra but the shredder 
blades are needed to make two machines in one. 

238 



OFFICE OF THE SILVER MFG. CO. 



Salem, Ohio, U. S. A., Jan. 1, 1911. 

In issuing the foregoing we have spared neither pains 
nor expense in producing reliable data and information 
from best authorities in order to produce a book entirely- 
comprehensive and worthy of the subject. 

In testimony of our efforts we mention with some pride 
that "Modern Silage Methods" has been furnished on many 
occasions to be used as a Text Book in the classes of our 
Agricultural Colleges throughout the States and recently 
the plates were furnished on request to the Director Gen- 
eral of Agriculture at Lisbon for the purpose of reproduc- 
ing the book in the Portuguese language. 

We charge a nominal price merely to help pay postage 
and to keep curiosity seekers and others not directly inter- 
ested from answering our advertisements. 

We do not make silos of any description. 

In describing our machines we have endeavored to 
give in condensed form such information as would enable 
beginners and others interested to form an estimate of 
what their cutting equipment would cost, and if the reader 
contemplates the purchase of an ensilage cutter, we ask 
that the merits of the "Ohio" be investigated. We solicit 
your inquiries regarding cutting outfits and shall be glad 
to supply latest catalog upon application. 

Respectfully, 
THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. 



239 




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